I 



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OXYHYDROGEN BLOW-PIPE. 






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FOURTEEN WEEKS 



COURSE II CHEMISTRY. 



BY 



J. DORMAN ^STEELE, A.M., 

PRINCIPAL OF ELMIRA FREE ACADEMY. 



Bright and glorious is that revelation 
Written all over this great world of ours." 

Longfellow. 



v 



.^?^y D " 



NEW YORK : 
PUBLISHED BY A. S. BARNES & CO. 

Ill & 113 WILLIAM STREET. 

1867. 



W\ 






Entered according to act of Congress, in the year 1867, 
By A. S. BARNES & CO., 

In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for the 
Southern District of New York. 



"3* 



Little, Rennte & Co., George W. Wood, 

STEREOTYPERS, PRINTER, 

430 BROOME STREET, N. T. 2 DUTCH 8TREET, N. T. 



PREFACE 



In the preparation of this little volume the author 
lays no claim to originality : his has been the far 
humbler task of endeavoring to express, in simple, 
interesting language, a few of the principles and 
practical applications of Chemistry. There is a large 
class of pupils in our schools who can pursue this 
branch only a single term, the time assigned to it in 
most institutions. They do not intend to become 
chemists, nor even professional students. If they 
wander through a large text-book, they become con- 
fused by the multiplicity of strange terms, which 
they cannot tarry to master, and, as the result, too 
often only " see men as trees walking." Attempts 
have been made to reach this class by omitting or dis- 
guising the nomenclature ; but this robs the science 
of its mathematical beauty and discipline, while it 
does not fit the student to read other chemical works 
or to understand their formulae. The author has 
tried to meet this want by omitting that which is 
perfectly obvious to the eye — that which everybody 
already knows — that which could not be long re- 
tained in the memory — and that which is essential 



6 PREFACE. 

only to the chemist. He has not attempted to make 
a reference-book, lest the untrained mind of the 
learner should become clogged and wearied with a 
multitude of detail. He has sought to make a pleas- 
ant study which the pupil can master in a single 
term, so that all its truths may become to him 
"household words." Botany, Natural Philosophy, 
and Physiology are omitted, since they are now pur- 
sued as separate branches. Unusual importance is 
given to that practical part of chemical knowledge 
which concerns our every-day life, in the hope of 
bringing the school-room, the kitchen, the farm, and 
the shop in closer relationship. This work is de- 
signed for the instruction of youth, and for their sake 
clearness and simplicity have been preferred to rec- 
ondite accuracy. If to some young man or woman 
this becomes the opening door to the grander temple 
of Nature beyond, the author will be abundantly re- 
paid for all his toil. 



SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS. 



It is recommended that in the use of this book the topical 
method of recitation should be adopted. So far as possible, the 
order of the subjects is uniform — viz., Source, Preparation, Pro- 
perties, Uses, etc. The subject of each paragraph indicates a 
question which should draw from the pupil all the substance of 
what follows. At each recitation the scholar should be prepared 
to explain any point passed over during the term, upon its title 
being given by the teacher. Such reviews at every recitation are 
of incalculable value. While some are reciting, let others write 
upon certain topics at the blackboard, and let the class criticise 
the thought, the language, the spelling, and the punctuation. 
Let each pupil keep a lecture-book, in w T hich to record under 
each general head of the text-book all the experiments, descrip- 
tions, and general information given by the teacher in class. In 
order to accustom the scholar to the nomenclature, use the 
symbols constantly from the beginning : they may seem dull at 
first, but if every compound be thus named, a familiarity with 
chemical language will be induced that will be as pleasing as it 
will be profitable. If time will admit, in addition, have weekly 
essays prepared by the class, combining information from every 
attainable source. 



ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY. 



INTRODUCTION. 

Chemistry treats of the specific properties of mat- 
ter and the composition of bodies. Examples : gold 
is yellow ; water is composed of two gases, hydrogen 
and oxygen. 

Organic Chemistry deals with those substances 
that have been produced by life. Examples : flesh, 
wood. Inorganic Chemistry is confined to those 
bodies that have not been formed by life. Examples : 
metals, rocks. 

An Element is a kind of matter which has never 
been separated into anything else. Examples : sil- 
ver, iron. There are about 65 in all, of which 52 are 
metals, and 13 metalloids or non-metallic substances. 

Chemical Affinity is that force that causes the 
elements of matter to unite and form new com- 
pounds. It acts at distances so slight as to be in- 
sensible, and upon the most dissimilar substances : 
the more dissimilar the stronger the union. Ex- 
ample : a little chlorate of potassa and sulphur mixed 
in a mortar will not combine, but a slight pressure 
of the pestle will bring them within the range of at- 
traction, and they will burn with a loud explosion. 



10 ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY. 

Nothing in the nature or appearance of any element 
indicates its chemical affinity. We can only tell by 
trial with what it will combine. This attraction is not 
a mere freak of nature, but a law stamped upon mat- 
ter by God himself for wise and beneficent purposes. 

Compounds are utterly unlike their elements in all 
their properties. Examples : yellow sulphur and 
white quicksilver form red vermilion ; the inert 
nitrogen and the oxygen of the air constitute a cor- 
rosive acid — aquafortis ; charcoal, hydrogen, and 
nitrogen produce the deadly prussic acid ; solid 
charcoal and sulphur make a colorless liquid ; poi- 
sonous and offensive chlorine combines with the 
brilliant metal sodium to form common salt. 

Heat and Light favor chemical action, and fre- 
quently develop an affinity where it seemed to be 
wanting. The former especially, by its expansive 
force, tends to drive the elements of a compound 
without the range of old attractions and within that 
of new ones. Examples : gun-cotton, when lying in 
the air, is apparently harmless, but a spark of fire 
will produce a brilliant flash, and it disappears as a 
gas : nitrate of silver turns black in the sun, by the 
action of the light. 

Solution also aids in chemical change, as it 
destroys cohesion and leaves the atoms free to unite. 
Example : carbonate of soda and tartaric acid 
mixed in a glass will not combine, but a little water 
added will produce a violent effervescence. 

The Chemical Equivalent of an element is the 



ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY. 11 

proportion by weight in which it unites with other 
elements. There is no chance-work in nature. No 
matter under what circumstances a compound is 
formed, the proportion of its elements is the same. 
Example : the carbonic acid produced amid the roar 
of a conflagration or the explosion of a volcano is iden- 
tical with that made in the quiet burning of a match. 

The Atomic Theory, which lies at the basis of 
chemistry, as now understood, supposes — 

1st. That bodies are composed of individual and 
unchangeable atoms. 

2d. That the chemical equivalent represents the 
relative weight of the atoms of different kinds. 

3d. That compounds are formed by the union of 
different kinds of atoms in the proportion of their 
equivalents, or multiples of their equivalents. 

4th. That the chemical equivalent of a compound 
is equal to the sum of the chemical equivalents of 
its elements. 

Nomenclature. — The elements which were known 
anciently have retained their names. Those dis- 
covered more recently are named from some pecu- 
liarity. Examples : chlorine, from its green color ; 
bromine, from its bad odor. Of late the uniform 
termination um has been adopted. 

Symbols. — The first letter of the English name 
has been taken as the symbol. When that would 
produce confusion, the Latin name has been substi- 
tuted, and in some cases the second letter added. 
Examples : carbon and chlorine both commence with 



12 



ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY. 



C ; so the latter takes CI for its symbol. Silver and 
silicon both begin with Si, hence the former assumes 
Ag, from its Latin name, Argentum. If more than 
one equivalent of an element is used in forming a 
compound, this is shown by writing the number be- 
low the symbol. Example : 2 indicates two equiv- 
alents of O. In the use of the following table, the 
symbol should recall, not the name of the element 
alone, but the relative weight of its atoms. Ex- 
ample : O means 8 parts of oxygen by weight. 



Table of 


Elements and Equivalents 


• 


KLEMENTS. 


Symbol. 


Equiv- 
alent. 


ELEMENTS. 


Symbol. 


Equiv- 
alent. 


Aluminum, 


Al. 


13.70 


i Niobium (Columbi- 






Antimony (Stibium), 


Sb. 


129.00 


' urn), 


Nb. 


48.80 


Arsenicum, 


As. 


75.00 


^Nitrogen, 


N. 


14.00 


Barium, 


Ba. 


68.50 


Norium, 


No. 




Bismuth^ 


Bi. 


210.30 


Osmium) 


Os. 


99.40 


Boron, 


Bo. 


10.90' 


5 Oxygen, 
Palladium) 


O. 


8.00 


Bromine, 


Br. 


80.00 


Pd. 


53.20 


Cadmium^ 


Cd. 


56.00 


-Phosphorus, 


P. 


31.00 


Coesium, 


Cs. 


123.40 


■1 Platinum, 


Pt. 


98.60 


- Calcium, 


Ca. 


20.00 


Potassium (Kalium), 


K. 


39.00 


Carbon, 


C. 


6.00 


Rhodium, 


Ro. 


53.20 


Cerium^ 


Ce. 


46.00 


Rubidium, 


Rb. 


85.36 


Chlorine, 


CI. 


35.50 


Ruthenium, 


Ru. 


52.11 


Chromium) 


Cr. 


26.30 


Selenium) 


Se. 


39.70 


„ Cobalt, 


Co. 


29.50 


Silicon, 


Si. 


14.00 


— Copper (Cuprum) 


Cu. 


31.70' 


Silver (Argentum), 
Sodium (Natrium), 


Ag. 


108.00 


Bidymium, 


D. 


48.00 


Na. 


23.00 


Erbium, 


E. 




Strontium) 


Sr. 


43.80 


Fluorine, 


F. 


19.00 


Sulphur, 


S. 


16.00 


Glucinum, 


Gl. 


4.70 


Tantalum, 


Ta. 


68.80 


^-Gold (Aurum), 


Au. 


196.44 


Tellurium, 


Te. 


64.50 


-Hydrogen, 


H. 


1.00 


Terbium, 


Tb. 




Iodine, 


I. 


127.00 


Thallium, 


Tl. 




Iridium, 


Ir. 


98.60 


Thorinum, ■ 


Th. 


59.50 


Iron (Ferrum), 


Fe. 


28.00 


Tin (Stannum), 


Sn. 


59.00 


Lanthanum, 


La. 


46.00 


Titanium, 


Ti. 


25.00 


-Lead (Plumbum), 


Pb. 


103.60 


Tungsten (Wol- 






Lithium, 


L. 


7.00 


fram), 


W. 


92.00 


-Magnesium, 


Mg. 


12.16 


Uranium, 


U. 


60.00 


Manganese, 


Mn. 


27.48 


Vanadium,) 


V. 


68.50 


-Mercury (Hydrargy- 






Yttrium, 


Y. 




rum), 


Hg. 


100.00 ' 


Zinc, 


Zn. 


32.60 


Molybdenum, 


M 


48.00 


Zirconium, , 


Zr. 


22.40 


Nickel, 


Ni. 


29.50 









ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY. 13 

A Binary Compound is a union of two elements, 
and in reading it tlie electro-negative is placed first 
and distinguished by the termination ide. Ex- 
amples : chlorine and sodium form chloride of sodi- 
um ; iodine forms iodides. In the case, however, of 
phosphorus, carbon, and sulphur, the termination 
uret is generally used. Example : iron and sulphur 
form sulphuret of iron, In writing the symbols the 
electro-positive element is placed first. An Oxyd is 
a compound of O with an element. One equivalent 
of O is called the protoxyd ; two, the deutoxyd or 
binoxyd; three of O to two of the other element, 
the sesquioxyd. Oxygen being negative to iron, 
when united they form an oxyd of iron, which is, 
therefore, written FeO ; the deutoxyd of iron is Fe0 2 ; 
the tritoxyd of iron is Fe0 3 ; the sesquioxyd, Fe 2 3 . 

Binary compounds are divided into three classes — » 
Acids, Bases, and Neutrals. 

An Acid is generally sour, and reddens blue lit- 
mus and green cabbage. It always unites with bases 
to form salts, which is the real test of an acid. 
Acids are of two kinds — Oxacids and Hydracids ; 
the former contain O, the latter, H. The oxacids 
are named from the element with which the O 
unites, the termination indicating their strength — ic 
the stronger and ous the weaker. Example : sul- 
phur forms two acids of different strength — sulphu- 
ric and sulphurous. If an acid has been found 
containing more than the stronger, it takes the 



14 < ELEMENTABY CHEMISTRY. 

prefix per; if one haying less O, the prefix hypo. 
Examples ■ 

Chloric acid C10 5 . 

Chlorous acid C10 3 . 

Perchloric acid C10 7 . 

Hypochlorous acid CIO. 

The hydracids combine the names of both ele- 
ments. Examples : hydrogen and chlorine form 
hydrochloric acid; hydrogen and sulphur make 
hydrosulphuric acid. 

A Base is a substance that unites with an acid to 
form a salt. An alkali is a base that, in addition, 
has a soapy taste and feel, and changes red litmus 
to blue, and red cabbage to green. It turns the ium 
of its termination to a. Example : NaO is called 
the oxyd of sodium, and also soda. The alkalies 
neutralize the acids, and each restores the color re- 
moved by the other. 

Salts are ternary compounds, being composed of 
three elements. They are formed by the union of 
an acid and a base. In naming a salt the termina- 
tion of the acid is changed — an ic acid forming an 
ate compound, and an ous acid an ite compound. The 
eqt^valent of O combined in the base is omitted. 
Examples : NaO.S0 3 is read, sulphate of soda ; 
FeO.S0 3 , the sulphate of iron, and not the sulphate 
of the protoxyd of iron ; CaO.S0 2 , sulphite of lime. 

Neutrals have neither the properties of an acid 



ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY. 17 

ence we can put tliis thought into the following al- 
gebraic form, tinder which should be solved the ex- 
amples which follow, and many other similar ones, 
which the ingenuity of teacher and scholar will sug- 
gest. The book should be searched for symbols of 
compounds, and this part referred to throughout the 
study. 

_ . , . „ ... . ,, , . i>x ( Equivalent of the constituent 

Weight of one constituent=weight of given quantity -J — — : — - — — ^—. — 

{ Equivalent of the compound 

1. In making O from chlorate of potash (KO. 
C10 5 ), how much can be obtained from two pounds 
of the salt? 

2. In making H zinc is used. How much sulphate 
of zinc (ZnO.S0 3 ^7HO) wiU be formed from 2 lbs. 
of the metal? 

3. How much S0 3 will be required to make 50 lbs. 
sulphate of iron (FeO.S0 3 + 7HO)? 

4. The equivalent of the chloride of sodium (salt) 
is 58.5. In 10 lbs. there are Gyfy lbs. of sodium ; 
what is the equivalent of CI ? 

5. In 20 grains of bromide of potassium there 
are &ytw grains of potassium; the equivalent of 
potassium being 39, what is the equivalent of the 
bromide of potassium ? 

6. In 14 lbs. of iron-rust (Fe 2 3 ) how much O ? 

7. In 20 lbs. of glass (NaO.Si0 2 + CaO.Si0 2 ) how 
many lbs. of sand (Si0 2 ) ? 

8. In a 25 lb. sack of salt (NaCl) how many lbs. 
of the metal sodium ? 



s 



INORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 



THE METALLOIDS. 

Oxygen. 

Symbol, .... Equivalent, 8 ... Specific Gravity, I.I. 
The name O means acid-former, and was given 
because it was supposed to be the essential princi- 
ple of all acids ; but hydrogen has since been found 
to possess the same property. 

Source. — O is the most abundant of all the ele- 
ments — comprising \ of the air, f of the water, f of 
all animal bodies, and \ of the crust of the earth. 
Preparation.— The simplest method of making O 

for experimental 
purposes is to 
heat a mixture of 
chlorate of pot- 
ash and black 
oxyd of manga- 
nese in a retort, 
and collect the 
gas over a pneu- 
matic cistern, as 
in the accompany 
Making o. ing illustration. 




OXYGEN. * 19 

The reaction —the chemical change — is as fol- 
lows: 

KO.C10 5 




KC1 60 



The CI of the chloric acid unites with the K of 
the potash, forming KC1, chloride of potassium ; and 
the 5 atoms of O in the chloric acid and the atom of 
O in the potash, making 6 atom^of O, pass off as a 
gas. 

A Curious Fact. — If the chlorate of potash were 
heated alone, when the requisite temperature was 
reached the gas would be liberated with very great 
rapidity. Sometimes, indeed, the change would be 
instantaneous — the solid of scarcely a cubic inch 
becoming in the twinkling of an eye a gas of 300 
cubic inches, and, with an explosion like gunpowder, 
rending the retort into a thousand fragments. If, 
however, we mix with the chlorate of potash a little 
black oxyd of manganese, the gas will come off 
quietly and safely, a bubble at a time. At the con- 
clusion of the process, the Mn0 2 (the binoxyd, or 
black oxyd of manganese) will be found unchanged. 
The reason of this w r onderful action is beyond our 
comprehension. It would seem that powdered 
glass or sand should produce the same result ; but, 
on trial, they fail. This influence of one body 
over another, by its mere presence, is called ca- 
talysis. 



20 



ELEMENTABY CHEMISTRY. 



Properties. — O lias no odor, color, or taste. It 
combines with every element except fluorine. From 
some of its compounds it can be set free by the 
stroke of a hammer, while from others it can be 
liberated only by the most powerful means. Its 
union with a substance is called oxydation, and the 
product an oxyd. It is a most powerful supporter 
of combustion. 



Example : By blowing quickly upward upon a 

candle extinguish the flame, 
and leave a glowing wick. 
If this be plunged into a 
jar of pure O, it will burst 
into a brilliant blaze. The 
experiment may be repeated 
many times before the gas is 
candle in oxygen. exhausted. Carbonic acid is 

formed by the combustion. Mfw^^^^» 




Example : If a watch-spring be straightened in a 

spirit-lamp, and then tipped 
with melted sulphur, on ig- 
niting this and lowering it 
into a jar of O, the steel will 
crackle into a shower of fiery 
stars, and melted globules 
of oxyd of iron will fly in 
every direction. 




OXYGEN. 



21 



Example : Ignite a bit of sulphur placed on a 
stand, and invert over it a jar 
of O : it will burn with a beau- 
tiful blue light, and the fumes 
of sulphurous acid (S0 2 ) will 
circle about the receiver in cu- 
rious concentric rings. 

Sulphur in oxygen. 




Example : Place in the bottom of a " deflagrating 
spoon" a little fine, 
dry chalk ; then wipe 
a bit of phosphorus 
very carefully and 
quickly between 
pieces of blotting- 
paper ; lay this upon 
the chalk, and, hold- 
ing the spoon over 
a large jar of O, ig- 
nite the phosphorus 
with a heated wire, 
and lower it steadily 
into the gas. The phosphorus will burst into a 
blinding flood of light, while dense fumes of phos 
phoric acid (P0 5 ) will roll down the sides of the 
jar. 

The Destructive Agent of the Air. — O is the ac- 
tive principle of the atmosphere. It is destructive in 
all its effects. Comprising one-fifth of common air, it 




Phosphorus in oxygen, 
sun.'" 



The phosphoric 



22 ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY. 

is all around us, and, like a lurking lion, constantly 
on the watch for a chance to spring upon and devour 
something. "We gather a basket of luscious peaches, 
and put them out of the way of the children ; but 
we cannot outreach the slyest pilferer of all — the 
O — and soon we will find the fruit covered with the 
prints of invisible teeth. Black spots appear, and 
we say they are decaying ; it is only the O feasting 
upon them, and in a month it will devour them, 
skin and all. To prevent this, we put our fruit in a 
glass can, heat it to expel the O, seal it up tightly, 
and then it is safe from this chemical plunderer. 

We open the damper of the stove, and the air 
rushes in. The O immediately attacks the fuel. 
Each pair of atoms catches up an atom of C between 
them, and flies off into the air as carbonic acid. — An 
animal dies. The O is on the alert ; and, the in- 
stant his victim expires, and sometimes a little 
sooner, he is so anxious to commence, he begins to 
remove that which will soon be an offence to all sen- 
sitive nostrils. — We accidentally cut a finger, and 
soon find the unwelcome O tugging away at the 
quivering nerve beneath. — The keen throb with 
which an unsuspected hollow in a tooth is revealed 
to us, announces the entrance of the foe at an un- 
guarded breach. — The HO in the cistern becomes 
foul and putrid. We uncover it. In rushes the O, 
picks up every atom of impurity, and drags it to the 
bottom. The thick sediment we find when we clean 
it t e next summer, shows how faithfully it did its 



OXYGEN. 23 

work.* — We use our writing-fluid, and the words 
look pale and dejected. In a few hours we return, 
and even the letters stand out bold and clear. 
Noiselessly uniting with the iron of the ink, the 
skilful intruder has not disturbed the most delicate 
tracery in taking possession. — The blacksmith draws 
a red-hot iron from his forge. The O seizes the op- 
portunity while the metal is glowing, and bites off 
great scales of the black oxyd of iron (Fe 3 4 ) that 
fly in every direction. — We wipe our knives and 
forks, and carefully lay them away ; but if we have 
left on them the least particle of moisture, as HO 
favors chemical change, the vigilant O will find it, 
and, if unmolested, will never stop until it has eaten 
the whole of the feast we have provided. But as 
heat is also productive of chemical action, and the 
Fe is now cold, it cannot combine as vigorously as 
at the blacksmith's forge ; therefore, the compound 
is a lower one, the red oxyd of iron (Fe 2 3 ) or com- 
mon iron-rust, as we see it on stoves and other 
utensils. 

O in the Human System. — We take the air into 
our lungs. Every three minutes all the blood in the 
system makes the tour of the body, and comes to 

* " As the vessel sets sail from London, the captain fills the 
water-casks with water from the river Thames, foul with the sewage 
of the city, and containing 23 different species of animalcules ; 
yet, in a few days, the contained in the air dissolved by the 
HO, will have cleansed it, and the HO will be found sweet and 
wholesome during the voyage." 



24 ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY. 

the lungs. Now the blood is full of little iron disks, 
or gas-bags. These, when old, assume a tawny hue, 
like the decayed leaves of autumn, shrivel up and 
die, millions of them perishing at every breath we 
draw. But when young and vigorous, they take up 
the O and carry it to all parts of the body, deposit- 
ing it wherever it is needed. Here the O revels* in 
high life. It sweeps tingling through every artery 
and vein, distends each capillary tube, sends the 
quick flush to the cheek, snatches up its portion 
of the food that comes out of the stomach, gnaws 
away at the nerves and tissues, eats up every worn- 
out muscle and all waste matter, until at last it comes 
back through the veins black and thick with the pro- 
ducts of its toil — the cinders of the fire within us. 

Combustion and Heat. — All processes of fermen- 
tation, of decay, of putrefaction, of fire, are called, 
by the chemist, by one name — combustion, or oxyd- 
ation. They are simply produced by the union of 
O with the substance. They differ only in the time 
employed in the operation. If O unites rapidly, we 
call it fire ; if slowly, decay. Yet the process and 
the products are the same. A stick of wood is 
burned in my stove, and another rots in the woods, 
and the chemical change is identical. In the com- 
bustion of an atom of O, a certain amount of heat is 
liberated. Hence, the house that decays in twenty 
years, gives out as much heat during that time as if 
it had been swept off in a fierce conflagration in as 
many minutes. 



OXYGEN. 25 

The Human Furnace. — The body is a stove in 
which fuel is burned, and the chemical action is pre- 
cisely like that in any other stove. This combustion 
liberates heat, and our bodies are kept warm by the 
constant fire within us. "We thus see why we fortify 
ourselves against a cold day by an extra full meal. 
When there is plenty of fuel in our human furnaces, 
the burns that ; but if there be a deficiency, the 
destructive O must still unite with something, so it 
gnaws away at our flesh ; — first the fat, and the man 
grows poor ; then the muscles, and he grows weak ; 
finally the brain, and he becomes crazed. He has 
simply burned up, as a candle burns- out to dark- 
ness. 

O produces Motion. — The action of O in the 
movement of the muscles is very singular. In order 
to move a limb, the muscle must contract. So the 
O unites with a part of the muscle, destroys its 
structure, and so shortens it. Thus every movement 
of a limb, every wink of the eye, even, is performed 
by the disintegration of the muscle used. The 
truth of this is shown very clearly when we remem- 
ber that, as soon as we begin to perform any unusual 
exercise, we commence breathing more rapidly, — 
showing that we need more O to unite with the 
muscles to perform the work. In very violent labor, 
as in running, we are compelled to open our mouths, 
and take in great swallows of oxygen. This roaring 
fire within elevates the temperature of the body, and 
we say " we are so warm that we pant." Really it is 



26 ELEMENTARY CHEMISTBY. 

the reverse. The panting is the cause of our warath. 
"We need 0, then, not only to keep us warm, but also 
to do all our work. Cut off its supply, and we grow 
cold, the heart struggles spasmodically for an in- 
stant, but the motive power is gone, and the wheels 
of life soon stand still.* 

The Burning of the Body by O. — A man weighing 
150 lb. has 64 lb. of muscle. This would be burned 
in about 80 days of ordinary labor. As the heart 
works day and night, it burns out in about a month. 
So that we have a literal " new heart" every thirty 
days. We thus dissolve, melt away in time, and 
only the shadow of our bodies can be called our 
own. They are like the flame of a lamp, which ap- 
pears for a long time the same, since it is " cease- 
lessly fed as it ceaselessly melts away." The rapidity 
of this change in our bodies is remarkable. Says 
Dr. Draper : " Let a man abstain from water and 

* During sleep, the organs of the body are mostly at rest, ex- 
cept the heart. To produce this small muscular exertion very 
little O is required. As our respiration is, therefore, slight, our 
pulse sinks, the heat of our body falls, and we need much addi- 
tional clothing to keep warm. Animals that hibernate show the 
same truth. The marmot, for instance, in summer is warm- 
blooded ; in the winter its pulse sinks from 140 to 4, and it becomes 
cold-blooded. The bear goes to his cave in the fall, fat and 
plump ; in the spring he comes out lean and lank. Cold-blooded 
animals have very inferior breathing apparatus. A snake, for 
example, has to swallow air by mouthfuls, as we do water. Others 
have no lungs at all, and breathe in a little air through their skin, 
enough to barely exist. Is it strange they are cold-blooded ? 



OXYGEN, 27 

food an hour, and the balance will prove lie has be- 
come lighter." At night a person is not quite so 
tall as in the morning. A French physiologist says 
his son lost an inch by a single night's dancing. 
This action gi O, so destructive — wasting us away 
constantly from birth to death — is yet essential to 
our existence. "Why is this ? Here is the glorious 
paradox of life. We live only as we die. The moment 
we cease dying, we cease living. All our life is pro- 
duced by the destruction of our bodies. Hence the 
necessity for food to supply the constant waste of 
our system, and for sleep to give nature time to re- 
pair the losses of the day. Thus, also, we see why 
we feel exhausted at night and refreshed in the 
morning. 

O the common Scavenger. — God has no idlers in 
his world. Each atom has its use. There is not 
an extra particle in the entire universe. So the O 
collects every waste substance, picks up every strag- 
gler, and returns it to the common stock, for use in 
nature's laboratory. In performing this task, its 
mission is most important and necessary. It sweet- 
ens water, it keeps the avenues of the body open and 
unclogged, it preserves the air wholesome. Oxygen 
is, in a word, the universal scavenger of nature. No 
matter can hide away from its keen eye. Every 
dark cellar of the city, every recess of the body, every 
nook and cranny of creation, finds it waiting ; and 
the instant an atom is exposed, the oxygen pounces 
upon it. A leaf falls, and the forthwith commences 



28 ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY. 

its destruction. A tiny twig, far out at the end of a 
limb, dies, and the immediately begins its removal. 
A pile of decaying vegetables, a heap of rubbish, 
the dead body of an animal, a fallen tree, even the 
houses we erect for our shelter the very instant they 
are built, all are gnawed upon by what we call the 
" insatiate tooth of time." It is only the constant 
corrosion of this destructive agent — oxygen. 

Action of pure O in the Body. — The action of 
undiluted oxygen on the animal system is exhilarat- 
ing in the highest degree. A rabbit immersed in a 
receiver of this gas soon feels its effect, bounds off 
into a delirium of excitement, and in a few hours by 
this quick combustion burns out its little lamp of 
life. Were we to breathe pure O, the fiery gas would 
leap through our arteries like a hungry tiger, the 
heart would throb against the ribs with the stroke 
of a trip-hammer, the veins would dilate with the 
increasing tide of blood, the eyes would glisten and 
glare : the gestures and motions would be at first 
quick, lively, vivacious, then hurried and restless, 
then eager and startling, at last furious and raving ; 
and if the inhalation of the gas still continued, stark 
insanity would end the drama of life. 

Eesults if the Air were pure O. — Were the air 
pure O, the fire element would run riot everywhere. 
Our lamps would burn with the oil they contain. 
Our stoves would blaze with a shower of sparks. A 
fire once kindled would spread with ungovernable 
velocity. In a conflagration, not only would the 



OXYGEN. 



29 



timber of a house burn, but the nails, the foundation, 
and even the very water poured upon it to extinguish 
the flames. 

Ozone. — Ozone is an allotrcpic form of O — i. e., a 
form in which the element itself is so changed as to 
have new properties. It is always perceived during 
the working of an electric machine, and is then 
called "the electric smell." It has also been de- 
tected near objects just struck by lightning. The 
electricity of the atmosphere is ^supposed to have 
something to do with its formation. Its test is a 
paper wet with a mixture of starch and iodide of 
potassium (KI). The ozone sets free the iodine, and 
that unites with the starch, forming the blue iodide 
of starch. Its identity with is easily shown. Ex- 
ample : Pour a little ether 
into a jar of common air, 
and stir in its vapor a 
heated glass rod. The 
O will be immediately 
changed into its allotrop- 
ic form — ozone, which can 
be recognized by its pun- 
gent odor and the test 
just named. If the ozone 
be afterward passed Making ozone. 

through a red-hot tube, it will come out the original 
O. Ozone is much more corrosive even than oxygen. 
It bleaches powerfully, and is a rapid disinfectant. 
A piece of tainted meat plunged into a jar of ozone 




28 ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY. 

its destruction. A tiny twig, far out at the end of a 
limb, dies, and the immediately begins its removal. 
A pile of decaying vegetables, a heap of rubbish, 
the dead body of an animal, a fallen tree, even the 
houses we erect for our shelter the very instant they 
are built, all are gnawed upon by what we call the 
" insatiate tooth of time." It is only the constant 
corrosion of this destructive agent — oxygen. 

Action of pure O m the Body. — The action of 
undiluted oxygen on the animal system is exhilarat- 
ing in the highest degree. A rabbit immersed in a 
receiver of this gas soon feels its effect, bounds off 
into a delirium of excitement, and in a few hours by 
this quick combustion burns out its little lamp of 
life. Were we to breathe pure O, the fiery gas would 
leap through our arteries like a hungry tiger, the 
heart would throb against the ribs with the stroke 
of a trip-hammer, the veins would dilate with the 
increasing tide of blood, the eyes would glisten and 
glare : the gestures and motions would be at first 
quick, lively, vivacious, then hurried and restless, 
then eager and startling, at last furious and raving ; 
and if the inhalation of the gas still continued, stark 
insanity would end the drama of life. 

Results if the Air were pure O. — Were the air 
pure O, the fire element would run riot everywhere. 
Our lamps would burn with the oil they contain. 
Our stoves would blaze with a shower of sparks. A 
fire once kindled would spread with ungovernable 
velocity. In a conflagration, not only would the 



OXYGEN. 



29 



timber of a house burn, but the nails, the foundation, 
and even the very water poured upon it to extinguish 
the flames. 

Ozone. — Ozone is an allotropic form of O — L e., a 
form in which the element itself is so changed as to 
have new properties. It is always perceived during 
the working of an electric machine, and is then 
called "the electric smell. ,, It has also been de- 
tected near objects just struck by lightning. The 
electricity of the atmosphere is supposed to have 
something to do with its formation. Its test is a 
paper wet with a mixture of starch and iodide of 
potassium (KI). The ozone sets free the iodine, and 
that unites with the starch, forming the blue iodide 
of starch. Its identity with O is easily shown. Ex- 
ample : Pour a little ether 
into a jar of common air, 
and stir in its vapor a 
heated glass rod. The 
O will be immediately 
changed into its allotrop- 
ic form — ozone, which can 
be recognized by its pun- 
gent odor and the test 
just named. If the ozone 
be afterward passed Making ozone. 

through a red-hot tube, it will come out the original 
O. Ozone is much more corrosive even than oxygen. 
It bleaches powerfully, and is a rapid disinfectant. 
A piece of tainted meat plunged into a jar of ozone 










30 



ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY. 



is instantly purified. Its abundance in the air pro- 
duces influenzas, diseases of the lungs, etc. ; its ab- 
sence, fevers, agues, etc. 



Nitrogen. 

Symbol, N ..Equivalent, 14 ••• Specific Gravity, 0.97. 

This gas is called nitrogen because it exists in 
nitre. 

Sources. — Nitrogen is found largely in ammonia 
and nitric acid. It forms \ of dried flesh, f of the at- 
mosphere, and exists abundantly in mushrooms, 
mustard, cabbage, horse-raddish, turnips, etc. The 
peculiar odor of burnt hair or woollen is given by 
the N compounds they contain. 

Preparation. — It is prepared by putting in the 
centre of a deep dish of water a little stand several 
inches in height, on which a bit of phosphorus may 

be laid and ignited. As the 
fumes of phosphoric acid ascend, 
invert a receiver over the stand. 
The phosphorus will consume all 
of the O of the air contained in 
the jar, leaving the N. As the 
water in the plate rises, add 
more as needed. It should occupy \ of the receiver. 
The jar will at first be filled with white fumes (P0 5 ), 
but the water in a few minutes will absorb these. 

Another Method. — Nitrogen may also be pre- 
pared in large quantities in the manner shown in the 




Making nitrogen. 



NITKOGEN. 



31 



illustration. At the left is a stream of water which 
falls through a funnel tube into a " "Woulfe's bottle." 
The U-shaped tube is filled with bits of chloride of 




Making nitrogen. 

calcium to absorb the moisture ; and a second tube 
should be added, filled with pumice-stone, moistened 
with caustic potash, to deprive the air of its carbonic 
acid. The long tube is filled with copper turnings, 
heated by the furnace-fire. The air from the bottle 
is driven by the falling water up through the U tubes, 
where it loses its water and carbonic acid; thence 
among the red-hot copper-turnings, which unite with 
its O : after which the N, deprived of all its com- 
panions, bubbles up through the water into the 
receiver. 



32 ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY. 

Properties. — All descriptions of nitrogen are of a 
negative character. It neither burns nor permits 
anything else to burn. It neither supports life nor 
destroys it. Yet a candle will not burn in it, and a 
person cannot breathe it alone and live, simply be- 
cause it shuts off the life-giving oxygen. So will a 
person drown in HO, not that the water poisons him, 
but because it fills his lungs, and shuts out the air. 
N does not unite with any of the metals. The insta- 
bility of all its compounds is its striking peculiarity. 
For instance, it may be induced to join its fortftne 
with iodine, but so gingerly, that if we even tread 
heavily in the room where it is kept, it will leave its 
partner in high dudgeon, and bound off into the air 
with a tremendous explosion. 

Uses. — Eelation oe N to Organic Substances. — 
Four-fifths of each breath that enters our lungs is N ; 
yet it comes out as it went in, leaving the remaining 
fifth, O, to perform its wonderful mission within 
our bodies. One-fifth of our flesh is N, yet none of 
it comes from the air we breathe. "We obtain all our 
supply from the lean meat and vegetables we eat. 
Plants breathe the air through the leaves — their 
lungs ; yet they do not appropriate any of the N 
obtained in this way, but rely upon the ammonia 
and nitric acid their roots absorb from the soil. N 
enters the stove with the O : the latter unites with 
the fuel ; but the former, disdaining any such work, 
passes on out of the chimney. Even from a blast- 
furnace, where iron instantly melts like wax, the N 



NITROGEN. 33 

conies forth without the smell of fire upon it. So 
unsocial is it, that it will not affiliate directly with 
any organic substance. "We must all, animals and 
plants, depend upon finding it bound hand and foot in 
some chemical compound, and so appropriate it to 
our use. But even then we hold it very loosely indeed. 
The tendency of flesh to decompose is mainly owing 
to the instability of the N in its composition. 

Difference between N and 0.* — We see now how 
different N is from O. The one is the conservative 
element, the other the radical. But notice the nice 
planning shown in the adaptation of the two to our 
wants. O, alone, is too active, and must be re- 
strained. Were the air pure O, our life would be 
excited to a pitch of which we can scarcely dream, 
and would sweep through its feverish, burning course 
in a few days. Four parts of the negative N just 
restrain the within governable limits, adapt it to 
our needs, and make it our useful servant. 

O and N combined. — Separately, either element 
of the atmosphere would kill us. The fiery O and 
the inert N combined give us the golden mean. The 
O now quietly burns the fuel in our stoves and keeps 
us warm ; licks up the oil in our lamps and gives us 
light; corrodes our bodies and gives us strength; 

* The difference between these two gases can be best illustrated 
by having a jar of each, and rapidly passing a lighted candle from 
one to the other : you will extinguish the light in the first, and 
relight the coal in the second. By dexterous management this 
may be repeated a dozen times. 

2* 



34 



ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY. 



cleanses the air and keeps it fresh and invigorating ; 
sweetens foul water and makes it wholesome ; works 
all around and within us a constant miracle, yet with 
such delicacy and quietness that we never perceive 
or think of it until we see it by the eye of science. 



Nitrous Oxyd, NO — Laughing Gas. 
Preparation. — This gas is made by heating nitrate 
of ammonia. The reaction is as follows: 



NH 4 . N0 5 




4HO + 2NO 

The atom of N and two atoms of O from the nitric 

acid unite with the 
atom of N from 
the ammonia, 
forming 2NO. The 
four atoms of H 
in the ammonia 
unite with three 
atoms of O in the 
nitric acid and the 
one atom of O in 
the ammonia, 
forming 4 atoms 

Making NO. „ ,-^ 

^ of HO. 

Properties. — It supports combustion almost equal- 
ly with O, and, like it, is colorless and odorless. It 




NITEOUS OXYD — LAUGHING GAS. 35 

is soluble in HO, and liquefies at 45° F., with a 
pressure of 50 atmospheres. It has a sweet taste, 
and is chiefly noted for its anaesthetic properties. 

Action on Human System. — When breathed, it 
produces a species of intoxication. The feeling is 
generally one of perfect bliss and contentment. A 
feverish glow overspreads the body, and a thousand 
delightful visions pass before the mind. The cares 
and troubles of life 

" Fold their tents like the Arabs, 
And as quiet steal away." 

A wild, delicious, dreamy joy spreads through the 
system, and annihilates all idea of time and space. 
The first inhalation of the gas sometimes causes 
bursts of laughter, hysterical weeping, or loud, un- 
meaning talking. Then succeeds a glow of warmth, 
first felt in the extremities, followed by a prickly, be- 
numbed sensation, a confusion of ideas, noises in the 
ears (frequently compared to the vibration of an 
engine from one side of the head to the other), and 
occasionally flashes of light before the eyes. With 
this stage all sensation and voluntary motion cease. 
Without any ability to act, one is yet frequently en- 
tirely conscious of all that takes place. During this, 
the anaesthetic state, perfectly painless operations 
can be performed. Often the patient will awake, re- 
membering all that has occurred, yet having felt no 
pain. 
For scientific purposes, or for amusement, the 



36 ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY. 

inhalation is stopped before the anaesthetic stage is 
reached. One can administer the gas to himself 
with perfect safety after a few trials. Before inhaling, 
he may decide what he will do while under its influ- 
ence, laugh, sing, declaim, etc. ; and keeping this idea 
and no other upon his mind while breathing, he will 
find himself irresistibly impelled to perform it. If 
he has no especial thought in his mind, he is left to 
the inspiration of the moment, and may do any ab- 
surd thing the occasion may suggest, from holding 
his nose and bowing continually to the audience, to 
clearing the stage of its occupants. The gas does 
not "bring out the natural disposition of the person," 
as some have believed. As soon as its influence 
passes off, the hand seeks the forehead with return- 
ing consciousness, the eye resumes its natural ex- 
pression, the pulse sinks to a slightly quickened beat, 
and the dream is over. 

Explanation. — The exciting effect of this gas is 
due to the excessive supply of O it furnishes the sys- 
tem. When the carbonic acid gas, formed by this 
unusual combustion, accumulates in the veins, by its 
narcotic influence it produces a temporary insensi- 
bility. 

Caution. — The utmost care should be used in pre- 
paring NO. It should stand over HO at least 12 
hours before inhalation, although agitation with sev- 
eral gallons of HO in the gas-bag is a safe precau- 
tion. No one should ever breathe it who is not in 
good health at the time, who is troubled with a rush 



NITRIC ACID. 



37 



of blood to the head, any lung or heart disease, or 
is of a plethoric habit. "With proper caution, no ac- 
cident need ever occur. 



Nitric Acid (Aquafortis), N0 5 .ff // £)^ 
This acid is found in nature, in combination with 
soda or potash, and is obtained in a separate state 
by the addition of a stronger acid, which drives off 
the weaker and usurps its place. Thus, taking 
KO.NO5, and adding S0 3 , tlae following chemical 
change ensues, while the acid is collected in a re- 
ceiver, cooled by dropping w r ater : 

KO.NO5 + S0 3 




KO.SO3 + N0 5 

It is formed in small quantities in the atmosphere 
by the union of its elements during the passage of 
electricity, as in 
a thunder-storm, 
and being washed 
to the earth by 
rain, is absorbed 
by the roots of 
plants. 

Properties. — It 
is an intensely 
corrosive, poison- 
ous liquid. When pure, it is colorless, but as sold, 




38 ELEMENTAKY CHEMISTRY. 

lias commonly a golden color, from the presence of 
the red fumes of nitrous acid, produced by the de- 
composing action of the light. It has been obtained 
in the form of brilliant transparent crystals, but is 
always found dissolved in HO, sometimes of twice 
its own weight, never less than |. In strength, it is 
next to S0 3 . It stains the skin, wood, etc., a bright 
yellow. 

Uses. — It gives up its O very readily, and thus 
corrodes any substance with which O will combine. 
It is employed in dyeing woollen yellow, and in sur- 
gery for cauterizing the flesh. It dissolves most of 
the metals, and in combination with HC1, forms aqua- 
regia, the only solvent of gold. It etches the lines 
in copperplate engraving, and the beautiful designs 
on the blades of razors, swords, and other steel 
utensils. The process is very simple. The surface 
is covered with a varnish impervious to N0 5 ; the de- 
sired figure is then sketched in the varnish with a 
needle. The N0 5 being poured on, oxydizes the 
metal in the delicate lines thus laid bare. 

Action on the Metals. — If a bit of Sn be placed 
in N0 5 , the acid will immediately give up to it three 
atoms of its O, making the metal an oxyd (Sn0 2 ), 
and reducing itself by the operation to N0 2 (nitric 
oxyd) ; this passes off into the air as a gas, and eagerly 
seizing upon two atoms of O in the air, becomes 
N0 4 (nitrous acid), which we readily recognize by its 
brilliant, red-colored fumes. If, instead of the Sn, 
Cu be used, the action is somewhat different. A 



NITEIO ACID. 



39 




portion of the acid unites with the Cu, forming an 
oxyd (CuO); but another portion instantly com- 
bines with CuO, making CuO.N0 5 . This we detect 
by the deep blue color it gives to the liquid. If we 
now evaporate « 
the HO from this 
solution, we will 
obtain beautiful 
blue crystals of 
the salt. 

The experi- 
ment may be 
performed with 
the apparatus 
shown in the 
cut. The nitric 
oxyd, N0 2 , caught in the receiver, will be found color- 
less, while, on admitting a bubble of air, blood-red 
fumes of N0 4 will fill the jar. 

Ammonia, NH 3 , — This gas is also called hartshorn, 
because in England it was formerly made from the 
horns of the hart. It received the name ammonia, 
by which it is now more generally known, from the 
temple of Jupiter Ammon, near which sal-ammoniac, 
one of its compounds, was once manufactured. The 
aqua-ammonia of the shops, which is merely a strong 
solution of the gas in HO, is obtained from the in- 
cidental products of the gas-works in large quanti- 
ties. Water absorbs from 400 to 500 times its own 
bulk of ammonia. "When undiluted, it will produca 



Making N0 2 



40 ELEMENTARY CHEMISTEY. 

a blister, and should, therefore, be very much weak- 
ened before being tasted or touched. It is a strong 
alkali, and turns the vegetable blues to greens ; but 
owing to its volatility this change of color is only 
temporary. It is, therefore, sometimes termed " the 
volatile alkali." Its test is hydrochloric acid, HC1. 
Example : If we bring a stopple wet with HC1 near 
this gas, it will instantly reveal itself by a dense 
cloud of white fumes, the chloride of ammonium, 
sal-ammoniac, which floats in the air like smoke. 
The "antidote of ammonia is vinegar. Its pungent 
odor can always be detected near decaying vegetable 
or animal matter. Smelling-bottles are filled with a 
mixture of finely powdered sal-ammoniac and lime. 
By this method, ammonia is also made in the arts. 
The process is hastened by applying heat. The re- 
action is as follows : 



NH 4 .C1 + CaO 




NH 3 + Ca.Cl + HO 



One atom of H of the sal-ammoniac unites with 
the of the lime, forming HO. The calcium of the 
lime combines with the chlorine, producing chloride 
of calcium, and the NH 3 is set free as a gas which 
may be absorbed by water, as in the adjoining illus- 
tration, thus forming aqua-ammonia. 

Nascent state. — If N and H, the elements of NH 3 , 
be mixed in a receiver, they will not unite chem- 



NITBIC ACID. 



41 




Making NH 3 



ically, owing to the negative character of N, of 
which we have before spoken. "When, however, any 
substance is decom- 
posed which contains 
both of them, as bit- 
uminous coal, flesh, 
etc., at the very in- 
stant of their separa- 
tion from their com- 
pounds, in the first 
feeling of their loneli- 
ness, as it were, they 
will combine and form 
NH 3 . This moment, 
when elements are thus in the act of leaving their 
compounds, is called their "nascent state." 

Chloktde of Ammonium, Muriate or Ammonia, Sal- 
ammoniac, NH 4 C1. — In the ammoniacal liquors just 
named, and in the distillation of horns, hoofs, horse- 
flesh, woollen rags, etc., carbonate of ammonia is 
formed. By mixing this with HC1, that acid drives 
off the C0 2 , and takes its place, thus producing 
chloride of ammonium. On evaporating the solu- 
tion, tough, fibrous crystals are obtained. They 
reveal no trace of the pungent ammonia, yet it can 
be easily set free, as we have already seen. Sal- 
ammoniac is soluble in HO ; is used in medicine, and 
also in soldering, the HC1 it contains dissolving the 
coating of the oxyd of the metal, and preserving the 
surfaces clear f jt the action of the solder. 



m 



ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY. 



Hydrogen. 



Symbol, H •••Equivalent, I ••••Specific Gravity, .069. 

Hydrogen means literally a generator of water. 

Preparation. — It is 
always obtained by the 
decomposition of HO, 
of which it forms \ 
part by weight. If we 
place in an evolution 
flask (a common junk 
bottle will answer) bits 
of zinc, and then pour 
through the funnel 
tube sulphuric acid 
(S0 3 ) and HO, the 

gas will be evolved abundantly. The reaction is as 

follows : 

Zn + S0 8 + HO 




Making hydrogen. 




ZnO.S0 3 + H 



The zinc decomposes the HO uniting with the O, 
forming ZnO, and setting free the H, which passes 
off as a gas. But the ZnO would soon form a coat- 
ing over the metal, and protect it from the HO ; this 
the S0 3 prevents by combining with the ZnO, form- 
ing ZnO.S0 3 (white vitriol), and so keeping the sur- 
face of the zinc bright and the action constant. ^The 



HYDBOGEJN. 43 

black specks which appear floating about in the so- 
lution are charcoal from the Zn. The white vitriol 
which is formed soon gives the mixture a milky- white 
appearance. By evaporating the HO, the crystals 
of this salt can be obtained. 

Properties. — H prepared in this manner has a 
disagreeable odor, from various impurities in the 
materials used. When pure, like O, it is colorless, 
transparent, and odorless. Its atoms are the small- 
est of any known element ; and in attempts made to 
liquefy the gas, it leaked through the pores of the 
thick iron cylinders in which it was compressed. It 
is the lightest of all bodies, being only y 1 ^ as heavy 
as common air. It is not poisonous, although, like 
N, it will destroy life or combustion by shutting out 
the life-sustainer, O. When inhaled, it gives the 
voice a ludicrously shrill tone. It can be breathed 
for a few moments with impunity, if it be first passed 
through lime-water to purify it. Owing to its light- 
ness, it passes out of the lungs again directly. Its 
levity suggested its use for filling balloons, and it 
has been used for that purpose;* but coal gas, 
which contains much H, and is cheaper, is now 
preferred. 

Combustion of H. — A lighted candle, plunged into 

* We read, in accounts of fetes at Paris, of balloons ingeniously 
made to represent various animals, so that aerial hunts are de- 
vised. The animals, however, persistently insist upon ascending 
with their legs up— a circumstance productive of great mirth in 
the crowd of spectators. 



u 



ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY. 



an inverted jar of this gas, is extinguished, while 
the gas itself takes fire, and burns with a pale blue 
flame. One atom of the O of the air 
unites with an atom of the H, and the 
product of the combustion is HO, which 
may be condensed on a cold tumbler, 
held over a jet of the burning gas, as 
in the accompanying figure. 

Mixed Gases. — A mixture of two parts, 
by measure, of H, with one part of O, 
or five parts of common air, will ex- 
plode with a deafening report. The bulky gases 
being instantly condensed into a mere drop of HO, 
only y^Vo as large, a vacuum is produced, and the 




Candle in H. 




Burning H. 



particles of air rushing in to fill the empty space, by 
their collision against each other, produce the stun- 
ning sound. While the detonation is so great, the 
force is slight, as may be shown by exploding the 
bubbles in the hand. The two gases may be mingled 
in the right proportion and kept for years, and there 



HYDROGEN. 45 

will be no change. The atoms lie against each other 
quietly, " cheek-by-jowl," without any manifestation 
of their chemical affinity, when suddenly, at the con- 
tact of the merest spark of fire, they rush together 
with a crash of thunder, and uniting, form the bland, 
passive liquid — water. 

Action of Platinum Sponge. — A piece of platinum 
sponge placed in a jet of H will ignite it. This 
curious effect seems to be produced in the following 
way : The atoms of H and the O of the air are 
brought so closely together in its minute pores that 
they unite, and the heat thus produced sets fire to 
the gas. 

Hydrogen Tones.* — A singular illustration of the 
laws of sound can be given by simply holding a long 
glass tube, by means of a suitable clamp, over a minute 
jet of burning H. At first no effect will be produced ; 
but as we slowly introduce the jet further and fur- 
ther into the tube, a faint sound is heard, apparently 

* Another illustration of singing hydrogen may be represented 
in the following manner: Make a jar of heavy tin, in the form of 
a double cone, 12 inches long and 4 inches in diameter. At one 
apex fit a nozzle and cork, at the other, make several minute 
openings. Covering these openings with sealing-wax, and draw- 
ing the cork, fill the jar with H, and replace the cork. When 
ready for use, hold the jar in a vertical position, remove the wax 
from at least one orifice, ignite the H at that point, and draw the 
cork. Still hold the jar quietly, and in a minute or two the tiny 
jet of H will begin to sing like a swarm of musquitoes, buzzing 
and humming in the most aggravating way until, most unex- 
pectedly, the scientific music ends in a loud explosion. 



46 



ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY. 



in tlie far-off distance. This gradually approaches, 
and finally bursts into a shrill, continuous, musical 
note — the key-note of the heated column of air 
within the tube. The cause of this is thought to be 




Hydrogen Tones. 



that the flame is momentarily extinguished and re- 
lighted with a slight explosion, and these, rapidly 
repeated, produce the musical note. Indeed, these 
explosions may be made so slow that the quivering 



WATEB- 47 

of the flame can be seen, and the sound cease to be 
continuous as before. Let us now place the tube at 
a point where no clapping of hands or unusual sound 
will start it into song. Let various tones be pro- 
duced from a violin, and we will find the flame re- 
sponding only to that tone which is the key-note of 
the tube, or its octave. The violin player will have 
perfect control of this scientific music, and can start, 
stop, or throw it into violent convulsions, even across 
a large hall. Tubes of different sizes and lengths 
will give tones of diverse character and pitch. The 
waves of sound from the instrument augmenting or 
interfering with those in the tube will probably ac- 
count for these phenomena. 

Water. 

Symbol, HO ... • Equivalent, 9 • • Freezes at 32°F Boils at 2 1 2°F. 

The composition of HO is proved by analysis and 
synthesis — i. e., by separating the compound into its 
elements, and by combining the elements to produce 
the compound. "We can analyze it in the manner 
already shown in preparing H, or by passing through 
it a galvanic current, when the O will appear in 
bubbles of gas at the positive pole, and the H in a 
similar way at the negative. In the synthetic method, 
we mix the two gases, and unite them as we have 
before by an electric spark. The blacksmith decom- 
poses water when he sprinkles it on the hot coals in 
his forge. The H burns with a blue flame, while the 



48 ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY. 

O increases the combustion. Thus, in a fire, if the 
engines throw on too little water, it will be decom- 
posed, and so add to the fury of the flame. To " set 
the North River on fire" is only a poetical exagger- 
ation. 

The quantity of electricity required to decompose 
a single grain of water is estimated to be equal to 
a powerful flash of lightning. The enormous force 
necessary to tear these two elements from each other 
shows the wonderful strength of chemical attraction. 
"We thus see, that in a tiny drop of dew there slum- 
bers the latent power of a thunderbolt. 

Water in the Animal World. — The abundance 
of water yery forcibly attracts the attention. It con- 
stitutes four-fifths of our flesh and blood. Man has 
been facetiously described as 12 lbs. of solid matter 
wet up in six pails of water. All plumpness of flesh, 
all fairness of the cheek, are given by the juices of 
the system. A few ounces of water causes the phys- 
ical difference between the round, rosy face of six- 
teen, and the wrinkled, withered features of three- 
score and ten. Our tears, poetical as they may seem 
to us sometimes, are only water and a pinch of salt. 
To supply the wants of the system each man needs 
about | of a ton annually. When we pass to lower 
orders of animals, we find this liquid still more abun- 
dant. Sunfishes are little more than organized water. 
Professor Agassiz analyzed one found off the coast 
of Massachusetts, which weighed 30 lbs., and ob- 
tained only ^ an ounce of dried flesh. Indeed, 



WATER. 49 

naturalists state that an entire order of animals (aca- 
lephs), belonging to which are the jelly-fish, medusa, 
etc., is composed of only ten parts in a thousand of 
solid matter. 

Water in the Vegetable World. — In the vege- 
table world we find it abundant. Wood is composed 
of 12 parts charcoal and 10 parts water, with a little 
mineral matter comprising the ashes. Bread is half 
water ; and of the potatoes and turnips cooked for 
our dinner, it comprises 75 parts of one and 90 of 
the other. The following table shows the proportion 
in common vegetables, fruits, and meats : 

Mutton 71 Trout 81 Cabbage 92 

Beef 74 Apples 80 Cucumbers. .97 

Yeal 75 Carrots ... .83 Watermelons .98 

Pork 76 Beets 88 

In all these instances water is essential to the struc- 
ture and constitution of the various substances. 
Remove it, and they are decomposed into entirely- 
new compounds. 

Water in the Mineral World. — Here we find a 
class of bodies in which the water is chemically com- 
bined in definite proportions. Such are called hy- 
drates. In the image which the Italian pedler 
carries through our streets for sale, there is 1 lb. of 
HO to every 4 lbs. of plaster of Paris. One-third of 
the weight of the soil of our farms is this same 
liquid. Each pound of strong N0 5 contains 2 £ oz. of 
water, which, if removed, would destroy the acid 



50 ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY. 

itself. If we expel the water from oil of vitriol, it 
will lose its acid properties, and we can handle it 
with impunity. In bodies which are capable of crys- 
tallizing, it seems only to determine the form and 
general appearance, and is called " the water of crys- 
tallization.' ' If we evaporate this from bine vitriol, 
it will lose its color and become white like flour. A 
few drops of HO will restore the blue. If we expel 
it from alum, it will puff up, and the transparent 
crystals will dry into an incoherent mass. Water 
of crystallization gives all the transparency to the 
opal, which else would be only common flint-stone. 

Water as a Solvent. — Water, having no taste, 
color, or odor itself, is perfectly adapted to become 
the universal solvent, receiving instantly the charac- 
teristics of any substance placed in it. It becomes 
at pleasure sweet, sour, salt, bitter, nauseous, and 
even poisonous. Had water any taste, the whole 
science of cookery would be changed, since each 
substance would partake of the one universal watery 
flavor. 

Pure Water. — Rain-water, caught after the air is 
thoroughly cleansed by previous showers, and at a 
distance from the smoke of cities, is the purest nat- 
ural water known. This is tasteless, yet its insi- 
pidity makes it seem to us very ill-flavored indeed. 
We have become so accustomed to the taste of the 
impurities in hard water, that they have become to 
us tests of its sweetness and pleasantness. 

Hard Water. — As water filters down through the 



WATER. 51 

soil into our wells, it dissolves the various mineral 
matters characteristic of the locality. The most 
common of these are lime, salt, and magnesia. The 
former produces a fur or coating on the bottom of 
our teakettles, if we live in a limestone region. 
"When we put soap in such water, it curdles — i. e., it 
unites with the lime, forming a new or lime soap, 
which is insoluble in HO. 

Sea- Water. — Common salt is the most abundant 
mineral in the ocean. Yet it contains traces of every 
substance soluble in water, which has been washed 
into the sea from the surface of the continents during 
all the ages of the past. Its saline constituents are 
now in the proportion of about a | oz. to a lb., which 
amount must be slowly increasing, as the water 
which evaporates from the surface is comparatively 
pure, containing only a mere trace of a few sub- 
stances, which give to the sea-breeze its peculiar 
bracing, tonic influence. In this way, the water of 
the Salt Lake has become the strongest of brine, 
nearly one-third of its whole weight consisting of 
saline matter. This condition would soon disappear 
if an outlet could be provided. 

Water Atmosphere. — As the world of waters is 
inhabited, it has its atmosphere also.* Inasmuch as 
the HO dilutes the O in part, it does not need so 

* Fish, breathe O through the fine silky filaments of their gills 
When a fish is drawn out of HO, these dry up, and he is unable 
to breathe, although he is in a more plentiful atmosphere than he 
is accustomed to enjoy. 



52 ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY. 

much N as the common air. It is accordingly com- 
posed of ^ O instead of ^. The air so rich in O thus 
absorbed by the water gives it its life and briskness. 
If it be expelled by boiling, the water tastes flat and 
insipid. 

Paradoxes of HO. — " Cold contracts," is the law 
of physics ; but as HO cools, it obeys this principle 
only as far as 39° F. Then it slowly expands, cool- 
ing down to 32°, its freezing point, when its crystals 
suddenly dart out at angles to each other, and thus, 
increasing its size ^, it congeals to ice. By this 
wise exception, ice is lighter than HO, and so 
swims on top ; otherwise our rivers would freeze 
solid, killing the fish and aquatic plants. The longest 
summer could not melt such an immense mass of ice. 
But now the blanket that nature kindly weaves over 
the rivers and ponds keeps their finny inhabitants 
warm and comfortable till spring ; then she floats it 
south to melt under a hotter sun. Water is full of 
contradictory terms. We have hard water and soft 
water, fresh water and salt water. Water seems the 
most yielding of substances, yet the swimmer who 
falls on his face instead of striking head foremost 
understands the mistake, and we could drive a nail 
into a solid cube of steel easier than into a hollow one 
perfectly filled with HO. H is the lightest substance 
known, and O is an invisible gas ; yet they unite and 
form a liquid whose weight we have often experienced, 
and a solid which makes a pavement as hard and 
unyielding as granite. H burns readily and explodes 



WATER. 



53 



most fearfully, O supports combustion brilliantly — 
yet the two combined are used to extinguish fires. 

Uses oe Water. — The uses of water are as poetical 
as they are practical. Its properties, already dis- 
cussed in Natural Philosophy, of specific heat, of ex- 
panding as it solidifies, together with that we have 
just named of dissolving such a wide range of gases 
and solids, fit it for a wonderful variety of opera- 
tions in nature. Its office is not merely to moisten 
our lips on a hot day, to make jt cup of strong tea, 
to lay the dust in the street, and to sprinkle our gar- 
dens. It has grander and more profound uses than 
any of these. Water is the common carrier of crea- 
tion. It dissolves the elements of the soil, and 
climbing as sap up through the delicate capillary 
pump of the plant, furnishes the leaf with the ma- 
terials of its growth. It flows through the body as 
blood, floating to every part of the system the life- 
sustaining O, and the food necessary for repairs and 
for building up the various parts of the " house we 
live in." It comes in the clouds as rain, bringing to 
us the heat of the tropics, and tempering our north- 
ern climate, while in spring it floats the ice of our 
rivers and lakes away to warmer seas to be melted. 
It washes down the mountain side, levelling its lofty 
summit and bearing mineral matter to fertilize the 
valley beneath. It propels water-wheels working 
forges and mills, and thus becomes the grand motive- 
power of the arts and manufactures. It flows to the 
sea, bearing on its bosom ships conducting the com- 



5-i ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY. 

merce of the world. It passes through the arid 
sands, and the desert forthwith buds and blossoms 
as the rose. It limits the bounds of fertility, decides 
the founding of cities, and directs the flow of trade 
and wealth. 

Carbon. 

Symbol, C .... Equivalent, 8. 

Carbon is one of the most abundant substances in 
nature, forming nearly one-half of the entire vege- 
table kingdom, and being a prominent constituent 
of limestone, corals, marble, magnesian rocks, etc. 
We find it in three distinct forms or allotropic con- 
ditions — viz., the diamond, graphite, and amorphous 
carbon. This last term means without form or crys- 
tals, and includes gas-carbon, charcoal, lamp-black, 
coal, coke, peat, soot, bone-black and ivory-black. 
In each of these various substances C possesses dif- 
ferent properties ; yet any impurities it may contain 
seem entirely incidental, and not at all necessary to 
its new state. 

Proof of this Allotropic state. — Chemists have 
changed most of these substances into other allo- 
tropic forms. Thus, common charcoal has been 
turned into graphite, mineral coal into gas-carbon, 
the diamond into coke. All of them, when heated 
in the open air, unite with the same quantity of O, 
forming precisely the same compound — carbonic 
acid gas — from which the carbon can be obtained 
again in the form of charcoal. 



CARBON. 55 

The Diamond is pure carton crystallized. It is 
the hardest of all known substances, scratches all 
other minerals and gems, and can be cut only by its 
own dust. It is infusible, but will burn at a high 
temperature. It is found in various parts of the 
world — North Carolina, Georgia, Borneo, and Brazil. 
The ancient mines of Golconda, in Hindostan, are 
not now worked. In 1858, Brazil furnished 120,000 
carats.* Diamonds are supposed to be of vegetable 
origin, and to have exuded, a4 some past time, as 
gum does now from cherry-trees, and then slowly 
crystallized. When found, they look like round 
pebbles, and are covered with a thin crust, which 
being broken reveals the brilliant gem within. They 
are of various colors, though often colorless and per- 
fectly transparent. The latter are most highly 
esteemed, and, from their resemblance to a drop of 
clear spring-water, are called diamonds of the " first 
water." 

The diamond is geound by means of its own 
powder. Being fitted to the end of a stick or handle, 
it is pressed down firmly against the face of a rapidly 
revolving wheel, covered with 
diamond-dust and oil. This, by 
its friction, removes the exposed 
edge and forms a facet of the ThebriUiant - The roge - 
gem. There are three forms of cutting — the trilliant, 

* A carat is equal to 4gr. Troy. The term is derived from the 
name of a bean which, when dried, was formerly used by diamond 
merchants in India as weights. 




56 ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY. 

the rose, and the table. The brilliant has a flat surface 
on the top, with facets at the side, and with facets 
below terminating in a point, so arranged as to re- 
fract the light most brilliantly. This form shows the 
stone to the best advantage, but is used only in large, 
thick stones, as it sacrifices nearly half the weight 
in cutting. The rose is flat beneath, while the upper 
surface is ground into triangular facets, terminating 
at a common vertex. The table form is used only 
for thin specimens, which are merely ornamented by 
small facets on the edge. The diamond is valued 
not alone for its rarity and high refractive power, by 
which it flashes such vivid and brilliant colors, but 
also for its mechanical uses. For cutting glass, the 
curved edges of the natural crystal are used. 

Graphite or Plumbago is also called black-lead, 
because on paper it makes a shining mark like lead. 
It is found at Ticonderoga, N. Y., and at Brandon, 
Vt. It is supposed to be of vegetable origin. 

Uses. — It is chiefly useful in pencils. For this pur- 
pose a mixture of black-lead, antimony, and sulphur 
— the proportion of these ingredients determining 
the hardness of the pencil — is melted and cast into 
blocks, which are then sawed into thin slips, as seen 
in common pencils. For drawing-pencils, pure graph- 
ite powder is subjected to such enormous pressure 
that the particles are brought near enough together 
for the attraction of cohesion to hold them in a solid 
form, when the pressure is removed. This solid block 
is then sawed into prisms as before, and fitted into 



CARBON. 



57 



cylinders of cedar-wood. Though graphite seems 
very soft, yet its particles are extremely hard, and 
the saws used in cutting it soon wear out. We notice 
the same fact in sharpening a pencil with a knife. 
Graphite mixed with clay is made into black-lead 
crucibles. These are the most refractory known, and 
are used for melting gold and silver. It is also sold 
as "British lustre," "carburet of iron," "stove 
polish," etc., which are employed for blacking stoves 
and protecting iron from rusting. 

Gas-Carbon is formed on the interior of the re- 
torts used in coal-gas works. It has a metallic lustre, 
and will scratch glass. 

Charcoal. — This is formed by burning piles of 




Making chare oaL 



58 ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY. 

wood, covered over with turf, so as to prevent free 
access of air. The volatile gases, water, etc., are 
driven off, and the C left behind. This forms about 
| of the bulk of the wood and | its weight. Char- 
coal for gunpowder and for medicinal purposes is pre- 
pared by heating willow or black alder in iron retorts. 
Properties. — It is the most unchangeable of all 
the elements, so that even in the charcoal we can 
trace all the delicate structure of the plant of which 
it was made. It is insoluble in any liquid. None 
of the acids, except nitric, corrode it. No alkali will 
eat it. Neither air nor moisture affects it. Wheat 
has been found in the ruins of Herculaneum that 
was charred 1800 years ago, and yet the kernels are 
as perfect as if grown last harvest. The ground end 
of posts are rendered durable by charring. Indeed 
some were dug up not long since in the bed of the 
Thames which were placed there by the ancient Brit- 
ons to oppose the passage of Julius Caesar and his 
army. A cubic inch of fine charcoal has 100 feet of 
surface, so full is it of minute pores. These absorb 
gases by capillary attraction to an almost incredible 
extent. A bit of C will take up 90 times its bulk of 
ammonia. As the various gases and the O of the 
air are brought so closely together within its pores, 
rapid chemical changes are produced, as in the case 
of platinum black, of which we have already spoken. 
Fresh provisions are packed in C for long voyages, 
and hams have been thus kept sweet for years. Foul 
water filtered through C loses its impurities. Beer 



CAKBON. 



59 



by this process parts not only with its color but with 
its bitter taste. Ink is robbed of its value and comes 
out clear and transparent as water. 

Deoxydizing Action of C. — At a high tempera- 
ture the appetite of C for O is insatiable. It will 
take it out in the heat of a furnace from almost the 
stablest compounds. Upon this fact depends it use 
in the arts. Nearly all the ores and many of the ele- 
ments are locked up in the rocks with O, and C is the 
key expressly made by the Creator for unlocking the 
treasure-houses of nature for the supply of our wants. 
By noticing the process of preparing zinc, iron, phos- 
phorus, etc., we shall see the importance of this 
property of C. A very pretty illus- 
tration is shown by placing a few 
grains of litharge (PbO), or -the 

i » , -i r% . e Litharge on charcoal. 

oxyd of any metal, on a flat piece 01 
charcoal, and directing upon it the flame of a blow- 
pipe. The metal will immediately appear in little 
sparkling globules. 

Soot is unburnt carbon which passes off from a 
lamp or fire when there is not enough O present to 
combine with all the of the fuel. This, therefore, 
comes away in flakes, and blackens the chimney of 
the lamp, or lodges in the chimney of the house. 
After a time it gathers in sufficient quantity, and we 
are startled by the cry, " The chimney is on fire !" 
while with a great roar and flame the soot burns out. 
This unpleasant occurrence is much more frequent 
when green wood is used for fuel. The HO of the 




60 ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY. 

wood absorbs much of the heat of the fire, and so 
permits the to pass off unconsumed. 

Lampblack is obtained by imperfectly burning 
pitch or tar. The dense cloud of smoke is conducted 
into a chamber lined with sacking, upon which the 
soot collects. It is largely used in painting. It is 
mixed with clay to form black drawing-crayons, and 
with linseed oil to make printers'' ink. Lampblack 
or charcoal has peculiar properties which fit it for 
printing. Nothing in nature could supply its place. 
No matter how finely it is pulverized, it retains its 
dead-black color. The minutest particle is as black 
as the largest mass. No chemical agents will change 
it. It never decays. The paper may moulder — we 
may even burn it, and still, in the ashes, can we trace 
the form of the printed letter. The ancients used an 
ink composed of gum-water and lampblack, and man- 
uscripts have been exhumed from the ruins of Pom- 
peii and Herculaneum which are yet perfectly legible. 

Animal Charcoal, or bone-black, is made by burn- 
ing bones in close vessels. Mixed with oil of vitriol, 
it forms paste-blacking. Common vinegar filtered 
through it becomes the colorless white vinegar of the 
pickle manufacturers. It is largely used by sugar 
refiners. Brown sugar is dissolved in HO, and the 
solution filtered through animal charcoal. This re- 
moves all the impurities which constitute the color- 
ing matter. The solution is then slowly evaporated 
in " vacuum pans," and the sugar collects in clear 
white crystals. 



CAKBON. 



61 



Mineral Coal. — This was formed in a former 
period of the world's history, called the Carboniferous 
Era. At that time the world was pervaded by a 
genial tropical climate. The air was denser and 
richer with vegetable food than now. The earth 
itself was a swamp, moist and hot, in which plants 
that creep at our feet to-day, or are known only as 
rushes or grasses, grew to the height of lofty trees, 
and simple ferns towered into trunks a foot and 
a half in diameter. These fern-forests resounded 
with no song of bird or hum of insect ; but a strange 
and grotesque vegetation flourished with more than 
tropical luxuriance'. In these swamps accumulated 
a vast deposit of leaves and fallen trunks which, 
under the water, gradually changed to charcoal. In 
the process of time the earth settled at various points, 
and floods poured in, bringing sand, pebbles, clay, 
and mud, filling up all the spaces between the trees 
that were standing, and even the hollow trunks them- 
selves. The pressure of this soil and the internal 
heat of the earth combined to expel the gases from 
the vegetable deposits, and convert them into min- 
eral coal. Where this process was nearly complete, 
anthracite coal, and where only partially finished, 
bituminous coal, was formed. The greater the pres- 
sure, the harder and purer the carbon produced ; un- 
less, however, the covering was not sufficiently porous 
to allow the gases to escape, when bituminous coal 
was the result. In time this section was elevated 
again, and another forest flourished, to be in its turn 



62 ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY. 

converted into coal. Each of these alternate eleva- 
tions and depressions produced a layer of coal or of 
soil. In these beds of coal we now find the trunks 
of trees, the outlines of trailing vines, the stems and 
leaves of plants as perfectly preserved as in a her- 
barium, so that, to the botanist, the flora of the Car- 
boniferous era is as complete as that of our own. 

Coke is the refuse of gas-works, obtained by dis- 
tilling off all the water, tar, and volatile gases from 
bituminous coal. It is burned in locomotives, blast- 
furnaces, etc. 

Peat is an accumulation of half-decomposed veg- 
etable matter in swampy places. It is produced 
mainly by a kind of moss which gradually dies below 
as it grows above, and thus forms beds of great thick- 
ness. Sometimes, however, plants may grow in the 
form of a turf, and decay, thus collecting a vast amount 
of vegetable debris. This gradually undergoes a 
change, and becomes a brownish black substance, 
loose and friable in its texture, resembling coal, but, 
unlike it, containing 20 to 30 per cent, of O. These 
peat-beds are of vast extent. One-tenth of Ireland 
is covered by them. One, near the mouth of the 
River Loire, is said to be fifty leagues in circumfer- 
ence. In Massachusetts and in New York peat is 
becoming of commercial value, and is used as a fuel 
in large quantities. For this purpose it is cut out in 
square blocks and dried in the sun. In many beds 
it is first finely pulverized, then pressed into a very 
compact form like brick. 



CARBON. 



63 



Muck is an impure kind of peat, not so fully car- 
bonized, though the term is frequently applied to any 
black swampy soil which contains a large quantity 
of decaying vegetable matter. Like charcoal, it ab- 
sorbs moisture and gases, and is therefore used as a 
fertilizer. 

Various Fokms and Uses of Carbon. — We have 
seen in what contrary forms carbon presents itself. 
It is soft enough for the pencil-sketch, and hard 
enough for the glazier's use. Bla^k and opaque, it 
expresses thought on the printed page : clear and 
brilliant, it gleams and flashes in the diadem of a 
king. In lampblack it frequently takes fire spon- 
taneously; in graphite, it resists the heat of the 
fiercest flame ; in the diamond, it is an insulator, 
while in charcoal, it is so perfect a conductor of elec- 
tricity, that it is packed about the foot of lightning- 
rods to complete the connection with the earth. "We 
burn it in our lamps, and it gives us light ; we burn 
it in our stoves, and it gives us heat ; we burn it in 
our engines, and it gives us power ; we burn it in our 
bodies, and it gives us strength. As fuel, it readily 
unites with O, yet we spread it as stove-polish on 
our ironware to keep the metal from rusting. It 
gives firmness to the tree and consistency to our 
flesh. It is the valuable element of all fuel, burning 
oils, and gases. Thus it supplies our wants in the 
most diverse manner, illustrating in every phase the 
forethought of that Being who fitted up this world as 
a ho ne for his children. Infinite Wisdom alone would 






64: ELEMENTAHY CHEMISTBT. 

have stored up such supplies of fuel and light, and 
hidden them far under the earth away from all dan- 
ger of accidental combustion, or anticipated all the 
requirements alike of luxury and the arts. 

Carbonic Acid. 

Symbol, CO2 •••• Equivalent, 22 ..Specific Gravity, 1.52. 

Sources. — It is found combined with lime, as in lime- 
stone, marble, chalk, and also in a large class of salts, 
known as tlie carbonates, forming nearly one-half of 
their weight, and almost one-seventh of the crust of 
the earth. It comprises y^- part of the atmosphere. 
It is produced throughout nature in immense quan- 
tities. Wherever C burns, in fires, lights, decay, 
fermentation, volcanoes — in a word, in all those va- 
rious forms of combustion of which we spoke under 
the subject of O, where that gas unites with C, car- 
bonic gas is the result. Each adult exhales about 
140 gallons per day. Each bushel of charcoal, in 
burning, produces 2500 gallons. 

Preparation. — For experimental purposes it is pre- 
pared by pouring HC1 (hydrochloric acid) on marble 
or chalk. The reaction is as follows : 

HC1 + CaO.GO, 




CaCl + CO, 



The H of the hydrochloric acid unites with the O 
of the lime (CaO), forming HO. The CI of the acid 



CARBONIC ACID. 



65 



combines with the Ca of the lime, forming chloride 
of calcium, while the C0 2 is driven off. It may be 




Making carbonic acid. 

collected in bottles by displacement, or as represented 
in the cut. 




Pouring C0 2 down-hill. 



66 



ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY. 



Test. — Its test is clear lime-water. If we expose 
a saucer of lime-water to the air, its surface is soon 
covered with a thin pellicle of carbonate of lime, thus 
showing that there is C0 2 in the atmosphere ; or if 
we breathe by means of a tube through lime-water, 
the solution will become turbid and milky, thus prov- 
ing the presence of C0 2 in our breath : by breathing 
through the liquid a little longer it will become clear, 
as the carbonate of lime will dissolve in an excess 
of C0 2 . 

Properties. — It is a colorless, odorless, transparent 
gas, with a slightly acid taste. It is a non-supporter 
of combustion, will run down an inclined plane, and 
can be poured from one dish to another, and dipped 
up with a bucket like water, or be weighed in a pair 
of scales like lead. Example : The accompanying 




Weighing CO a . 

cut shows a very neat way of illustrating several of 
these properties. For weighing, the C0 2 may be 
contained in a large paper box or bag, such as is 
used by grocers. 



CABBONIC ACID, 



67 





Poisoning by C0 2 . — This gas is fatal to life. When 
largely diluted it acts as a narcotic, producing lan- 
guor, and finally insensibility and death. It accu- 
mulates in wells and cellars, and many persons have 
been poisoned by descending into such places incau- 
tiously. The test of lowering a lighted candle should 

always be employed. If that 

is extinguished, your life 

would be in danger of " go- 
ing out" in the same way, 

should you descend. The 

gas may be dipped out like 

water, or the well may be 
Can d fco\ 3ar Purified by lowering pans of 

slacked lime, or lighted coals A canffle in c ° 2 - 
which, when cool, will absorb the noxious gas. The 
coals may be reignited, and lowered repeatedly until 
the result is reached. A well, in which a candle 
would not burn within 26 feet of the bottom, was 
thus purified in a single afternoon. Persons have, 
been poisoned by burning charcoal in an open fur- 
nace in a closed room. In Prance, it is not unusual 
to commit suicide in this manner. The antidote is 
to bring the sufferer into the fresh air, and dash cold 
water upon his face. In the celebrated Grotto del 
Cane, in Italy, the gas accumulates near the floor, so 
that a man living near amuses visitors, for a small 
fee, by leading his dog into the cave. He experi- 
ences no ill effects himself, but the dog soon falls 
senseless. A dash of cold water revives him, and 



68 ELEMEXTABY CHEMISTRY. 

he is ready to pick up his bone and enjoy the reward 
of his scientific experiment. The celebrated Upas 
tree of Java seems not to be altogether fabulous. 
The poison is not derived from the tree itself ; but 
is due to the fact that it is located in a deep valley 
about a half-mile in circumference, in which C0 2 is 
evolved in quantities sufficient to contaminate the 
entire atmosphere. The valley is said to be strewn 
with the bones of animals and birds which have 
strayed into this gaseous lake. 

C0 2 in Mines, — Miners call C0 2 choke-damp. It 
is produced by the explosion of fire-damp (light car- 
buretted hydrogen) which accumulates in deep mines, 
and burns with a shock like gunpowder, forming dense 
volumes of C0 2 , which instantly destroys the lives of 
all who may have escaped the flames of the explosion. 
Where C0 2 alone is found, it is not considered as dan- 
gerous as the fire-damp, since it will not burn, and it 
is said that miners will even venture " where the air is 
so foul that the candles go out, and are then relighted 
from the flame on the wick by swinging them quickly 
through the air, when they burn a little while and 
then go out, and are relighted in the same way." 
C0 2 has been used for the purpose of extinguishing 
fires in coal-mines. In one case an English mine 
had burned for 20 years, consuming a seam of coal 
over a space of 26 acres, defying all attempts to 
quench it. 8,000,000 cubic feet of C0 2 were poured 
into it day and night for three weeks, when the mine 
was cooled with water ; and at last, at the close of 



CABBONIC ACID. 69 

the month, the mine was ready for labor to be re- 
sumed. 

Absorption of C0 2 by Liquids. — Water dissolves 
its own volume of C0 2 under the ordinary pressure 
of the atmosphere; but with increased pressure, it 
will absorb a much greater amount. "Soda water" 
is improperly named, as it contains no soda, but is 
simply water saturated with C0 2 in a copper receiver 
strong enough to resist the pressure of 10 or 12 at- 
mospheres. This gas gives tha HO a pleasant, pun- 
gent, and slightly acid taste, and by its escape, when 
exposed to the air, produces a brisk effervescence. 
In beer, ginger-pop, cider, wine, etc., the C0 2 is pro- 
duced by the fermentation going on within. The gas 
escapes rapidly through cider and wine, and so pro- 
duces only a sparkling ; while in a thick, viscid liquid, 
like beer, the bubbles are partly confined, and so 
cause it to foam and froth. In canned fruits, catsup, 
etc., the souring of the vegetables produces C0 2 , 
which sometimes drives out the cork or bursts the 
bottles with a loud report, scattering the contents 
far and wide. 

Liquid C0 2 . — By a pressure of 40 atmospheres, at a 
temperature of 32°, C0 2 becomes a colorless liquid, 
very much like water. "When this liquid is brought 
out into the air, it evaporates so rapidly that a por- 
tion is frozen into a snowy solid which burns the 
flesh like a red-hot iron. By means of liquid C0 2 , 
which has a temperature of — 150° F., mercury can be 
frozen even in a red-hot crucible. Mixed with ether, 



70 ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY. 

and evaporated under the exhausted receiver of an 
air-pump, Professor Faraday obtained a cold of 166° 
below zero. 

Ventilation. — The relation of carbonic acid to life 
is most important, and cannot be too often dwelt 
upon. "We exhale constantly this poisonous gas, 
each person contaminating at least 10 cubic feet of air 
per minute. If means are not provided to furnish 
us fresh air constantly, we are compelled to re-breathe 
that which our lungs have just expelled. The lan- 
guor, the sleepiness we feel in a crowded assembly, 
is the natural effect of this narcotic poison. The 
idea of drinking in at every breath the exhalations 
that load the atmosphere of a crowded, promiscuous 
assembly, is disgusting as it is noxious. "We shun 
impurity in every form ; we dislike to wear the 
clothes of another, or to eat from the same dish; 
we shrink from contact with the filthy, and yet sit- 
ting in the same room inhale their poisonous breath. 
Health and cleanliness alike require that we should 
carefully ventilate all public buildings, our school- 
rooms, and our sleeping-apartments. Fresh air and 
good water are the cheapest luxuries of life, and 
alas ! too commonly the rarest. 

Singular Truth.— Hi is a fact, as poetical as it is 
characteristic, that when the C0 2 comes forth from 
the lungs it is poisonous, fully charged with the seeds 
of disease, so that if we should re-breathe it, death 
would inevitably ensue ; yet as it passes out it pro- 
duces all the tones of the human voice, all songs, and 



CAEBONIO ACID. 



71 



prayers, and social conversation. Thus the gross 
and deadly is by a divine simplicity made refined 
and spiritual, and caused to minister to our highest 
happiness and welfare. 

Carbonic Oxyd (CO). — This is a colorless, almost 
odorless gas. It burns with a pale, blue flame, ab- 
sorbing an atom of O from the air, and becoming 
C0 2 . It is seen thus burning in our coal-stoves, and 
at the top of tall furnace-chimneys. It is caused by 
an insufficient supply of O. It is a deadly poison, 
and escaping from coal-fires in a close room has often 
produced death. The offensive odor which comes 
out on opening the door of our coal-stoves is caused 
by the compounds of sulphur mixed with the CO. 

Light Carburetted Hydrogen (C 2 H 4 ). — This is 
the gas we have already spoken of under C0 2 , as the 
dreaded fire-damp of miners. It is colorless, taste- 
less, odorless, and burns with a yellowish flame. It is 
formed in swamps and 
low marshy places by 
the decomposition of 
vegetable matter, and 
on stirring the mud be- 
neath, will be seen bub- 
bling up through the 
w r ater. It rises from Marsh-gas. 

the earth in great quantities at many places. At 
Fredonia, N. Y., it is collected and used in lighting 
the village. At Kanawha, Va., it is employed as fuel 
for evaporating the brine in the manufacture of salt. 







72 ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY. 

In the oil-wells of Pennsylvania, it frequently bursts 
forth with explosive violence, throwing the oil high 
into the air. 

Heavy Carburetted Hydrogen (C 4 H 4 ). — Olejiant 
Gas. — This is a colorless gas, with a sweet, pleasant 
odor, and burns with a clear white light. 

Illuminating Gas consists principally of the two 
gases just named. The proportion of the latter, or 
olefiant gas, which gives the clearness and whiteness 
to the flame, determines its value. It is made by 
heating bituminous coal in large iron retorts until 
coke only is left, and all the volatile constituents are 
driven off.* These are very numerous. Among 
them are coal-tar, ammonia, carbonic acid, carbonic 
oxyd, nitrogen, compounds of sulphur, light and 
heavy carburetted hydrogen. This mixture is first 
cooled in the condeiiser, which is a series of iron 
tubes surrounded by cold water, in which the coal- 
tar is deposited, with the ammoniacal liquids. Then 
it is sprinkled with a spray of water, which takes out 
all the ammonia, and last of all passed through milk 
of lime, which absorbs the carbonic acid. The re- 
maining gases form the mixture we call " gas." This 
is then collected in the gasometer, the weight of which 
forces it through all the little gas-pipes, and up to 
every jet in the city. Its unpleasant odor, and the 
danger resulting from its escape in our rooms, are 
the same we have just mentioned in coal fires. 

Cyanogen (Cy, — NC 2 ).— If we mix hides, horns, etc., 

* A ton of Cannel coal will yield 15,000 feet of gas. 



COMBUSTION. 73 

with carbonate of potash and iron filings, and heat 
them in a close vessel, the N and C of these animal 
substances in their nascent state will combine, form- 
ing cyanogen. This unites with the iron and potas- 
sium, forming the beautiful yellow crystals of ferro- 
cyanide of potassium, or so-called yellow prussiate 
of potash. The compounds of cyanogen are named 
cyanides, and are all made from this salt. 

Hydkocyanic Acid (HCy). — Prussic acid, as it 
is commonly called, is a most^ fearful poison. A 
single drop on the tongue of a large dog is said to 
produce instant death. Ammonia, cautiously inhaled, 
is its antidote. Its bitter flavor is detected in peach 
blossoms, the kernels of plums or peaches, bitter 
almonds, and the leaves of wild cherry. 

Fulminic Acid. — This compound of Cy is known 
only as combined with the various metals forming 
fulminates, which are fearfully explosive. (The 
term fulminate is from the Latin fulmen, a thun- 
derbolt.) Fulminating mercury was used to fill the 
bombs with which the life of Napoleon III. was 
attempted in 1858. It is employed in making gun- 
caps. A drop of gum is first put in the bottom of 
the cap, over which is sprinkled a little fulminating 
mercury, and this is sometimes covered with varnish 
to protect it from the moisture. 

Combustion. 
Combustion, in its popular sense, is the union of a 
substance with O, and includes all the various forms 

4 



74 ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY. 

of oxydation we named when treating of that gas. 
The amount of heat depends upon the quantity of 
which enters into combination. 

Example : HO = 9. Hence, in 9 lbs. of HO there 
are 8 lbs. of O, and 1 lb. of H. On the other hand, 
C0 2 = 22. Hence, in 22 lbs. of carbonic acid there 
are 6 lbs. of C and 16 of O ; 1 lb. of C unites with 
2| lbs. of O. Therefore, H combines with three 
times as much O as C does, and so gives off three 
times as much heat. The intensity of the heat de- 
pends upon the rapidity with which the fuel unites 
with O. So we open the draft, or blow a fire, to fur- 
nish this active element of the air in greater abun- 
dance. 

The Igniting Point. — Although O unites at all 
temperatures, yet combustion, in its popular sense, 
does not commence until the heat of the combustible 
is raised to a certain point, when we say "it has 
caught fire." The burning point of any substance 
is the temperature at which it bursts into quick com- 
bustion. We elevate the heat of a small portion to 
the point of rapid union with O, and that part in 
burning will give off heat enough to support the 
combustion of the rest. Example : In making a fire, 
we take a substance for kindling which unites with 
O at a low temperature, as paper or shavings, with 
which we obtain heat enough to start the combustion 
of something that requires a higher temperature, as 
chips or pine sticks, and thus gradually increase the 
degree of heat until we reach the igniting point of 



COMBUSTION. 75 

coal or wood. If we pour on much coal when the 
fire is low, we will put it out, because the fresh fuel 
lowers the heat below the point of union with O, 
which is about 1000°. 

Chemistky of a Fibe. — All our fuel and lights, such 
as wood, coal, oil, tallow, etc., consist mainly of 
and H, and are, therefore, called hydrocarbons. In 
burning, they unite with the O of the air, forming 
HO and C0 2 . These both pass off, the one as a vapor, 
the other as a gas. In a long stove-pipe, the HO is 
sometimes condensed, and drips down, bringing soot 
upon our carpets. Ashes comprise the mineral 
matter contained in the fuel, united with some of 
the C0 2 produced in the fire. When we first put 
fuel in the stove, the H is liberated with some C, in 
the form of carburetted hydrogen gas. This burns 
with a flame. Then, the volatile H having passed 
off, we have left the C, which burns as a coal merely. 
In maple there is much more than in pine, so it 
forms a good "bed of coals." In the burning of 
fuel there is no annihilation ; but the HO, C0 2 , and 
the ashes, weigh as much as the wood and the O 
that combined with it. No matter how rapidly the 
fire burns, in the blaze of the fiercest conflagration, 
the elements unite in exact chemical equivalents. 
Carbon is most wisely fitted for fuel, since the pro- 
duct of its combustion is a gas. Were it not so, our 
fires would be choked, and before each supply of 
fresh fuel we would be compelled to remove the 
ashes that filled the stove. In the case of a 



76 ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY. 

candle it would be still more annoying, as tlie solid 
product would fall around our rooms in an acid 
shower that would corrode every thing it touched. 
Still another property is the infusibility of carbon. 
Did it melt like zinc or lead on the application of 
heat, how quickly in a hot fire would the coal and 
wood melt, and run down through the grate and out 
upon the floor in a liquid mass ! These properties, 
together with its abundance, exactly adapt it to 
our use. 

Chemistry of a Candle. — Flame is burning gas. 

A candle is a small " gas-works," and its flame is the 

same as that of a " gas-burner." First we have a 

a little cupful of tallow melted by the heat 

\ of the fire above. The ascending currents 

/A\ of cool air which supply the light with O 

\ also keep the sides of the cup hard, unless 

\\ the wind blows the flame downward, when 

A\ the banks break, there is a crevasse, and 

^vw// our canc ^ e runs down. Next, the melted 

___|P^ tallow is carried by capillary attraction up 

fe-^—SfiJ the small tubes of the wick into the flame. 

|||m There it is turned into gas by the heat. 

ILjilliP Flame is always hollow, and at the centre, 

Form of flame. .-, • i • ii j p t tp 

near the wick, is the gas just formed. It a 
match be placed across a flame, it will burn off at 
each side in the ring of the flame, while the centre 
will be unblackened. The gas may be conducted out 
of the flame by a small pipe, and burned at a little 
distance from the candle. The flame is hollow 



COMBUSTION. 



77 




Match in flame. 



because there is no O at the centre. The gas floats 
outward from the wick. It comes in contact with 
the O of the air, and the H, requiring least heat to 
unite, burns first, forming HO. This 
produces heat enough to make the 
tiny particles of C, floating around in 
the flame of burning H, white-hot. 
They each send out a delicate wave 
of light, and passing on to the outer 
part, where there is more O, burn, 
forming C0 2 . The flame is blue at 
the bottom, because there is so much 
O at that point that the H and burn 
together, and so give little light. The 
JIO may be condensed on any cold sur- 
face. The C0 2 may be tested by passing the invisible 
smoke of a candle through lime-water. The wick of 
a candle does not burn because of the lack of O at 
the centre. It, however, is charred, as all the volatile 
gas is driven off by the heat. If a portion falls over to 
the outer part, where there is O, it burns as a coal. 
If we blow out a candle quickly, we can see the gas 
passing off, and can relight the candle with an ignited 
match held at some distance from the wick. The 
tapering form of the flame is due to the currents of 
air that sweep up from all sides toward it. The 
candle must be snuffed, because the long w^ick would 
cool the blaze below the igniting point of and O, 
and the C would pass off unconsumed. A draught 
of air, or any cold substance thrust into the flame, 



78 



ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY. 




Water in a flame. 



produces the same result, and deposits the C as 
soot. Plaited wicks are sometimes used, which, 
being thin, fall over to the outside and burn, requir- 
ing no snuffing. 

Chemistry of a Lamp. — A chimney confines the 
hot air and makes a draught of through the flame. 

A flat wick is used, as it pre- 
sents more surface to the ac- 
tion of the O. Argand lamps 
are made with a hollow wick, 
so as to admit into the centre 
of the blaze. The film which 
gathers on a chimney when we 
first light a lamp, is the HO 
produced in the flame, con- 
densed on the cold glass. A pint of oil forms a full 
pint of HO. Spirits of turpentine, tar, pine-wood, 

etc., contain an excess of C, and 
not enough H to heat it to the 
point of union with O. These, 
therefore, produce clouds of soot. 
Alcohol contains an excess of H 
and little C, hence it gives off 
great heat and but little light. 
Davy's Safety Lamp, used by 
miners, consists of an ordinary 
oil-lamp, surrounded by a cylin- 
der of fine wire-gauze. Even if 
the flame of the lamp is thrown 
against the outside, or inflam- 





COMBUSTION. 79 

mable gases from the mine come into the inside, the 
wire conducts off the heat, and reduces it below the 
point of union with O, so no flame can pass through, 
and no gas on the outside ignite. 
Through carelessness fearful acci- 
dents have occurred, even since this 
lamp has been used. Miners become 
extremely negligent, and an account 
is given of an explosion, in which 

- (1 nn n .,, .. Wire-gauze in flame. 

about a hundred persons were killed, 

caused by a lamp being hung on a nail by a hole 

broken through the wire-gauze. 

Extinguishing Fikes. — Blowing on a candle or 
lamp extinguishes it, because it lowers the heat of 
the flame below the point of union of C with O. 
Fires are put out by HO partly for the same reason, 
and also because it envelops the wood and shuts off 
the air. If a person's clothes take fire, the best pos- 
sible remedy is to wrap him in a blanket, carpet, 
coat, or even in his own garments. This smothers 
the fire, by shutting out the O of the air. Great 
care should be taken in a fire not to open the doors 
or windows, so as to cause a draught of air. The 
entire building may burst into a blaze, when the fire 
might have been confined for want of O, and so 
easily extinguished. 

Spontaneous Combustion. — Sometimes chemical 
changes take place in combustible substances, 
whereby heat enough is generated to cause ignition. 
Lime occasionally absorbs HO, so as to set fire to 







80 ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY. 

wood in contact with it. Fresh-burned charcoal 
has the power of absorbing gases in its pores so 
vigorously as to become ignited. Heaps of coal 
often take fire from the iron pyrites contained in 
them being decomposed by the moisture of the air. 
The waste cotton used in mills for wiping oil from 
the machinery, is thrown into large heaps, and ab- 
sorbs O from the air so rapidly that it often bursts 
into a blaze. Instances have been given of the hu- 
man body itself taking fire spontaneously. It hap- 
pens most generally in the case of intemperate 
persons. In these instances the fire was not easily 
subdued nor communicated to other substances, — 
the body having even burned to ashes while the 
garments were unconsumed. 

Ox-hydrogen Blow-pipe.* — In the Compound 
Blow-pipe a jet of O is introduced into the centre 
of a jet of burning H, producing a solid flame. 

Inasmuch also as H unites 
with so much O, an im- 
mense heat is developed. 
A watch-spring will burn 
in it with a shower of 
sparks. Platinum, the 
most infusible of metals, 
requiring a temperature of 4591°, or over twenty 
times that of boiling water, readily melts. In the 
common hollow flame, as we have seen, the little 

* See Frontispiece. 




COMBUSTION. 



81 



(K> 



17 



particles of solid C, heated by tlie 
burning H, produce the light. As 
there is no solid body in the Blow- 
pipe flame, it is scarcely luminous. 
If, however, we insert in it a bit of 
lime, a most dazzling light is pro- 
duced. This is called the " Drum- 
mond," "Lime," or "Calcium" 
Light, and has been seen at a dis- 
tance of one hundred and eight 
miles in broad sunlight. 

Bloiv-pipe. — In the common blow- 
pipe, used by jewellers, a current 
of O from the lungs is thrown into 
the centre of an alcohol blaze. It 
is thus rendered solid and its heat 
greatly increased. Near the extreme point of the 
flame the unconsumed gases are very hot, and com- 
bine readily with the 
O of any substance in- 
serted into the flame 
at that part, which is 
therefore called the 
" reducing flame" Just 
at the point of the 
flame, the O thrown from the lungs is highly heated, 
and is ready to combine with any substance, and is 
therefore called the " Oxydizing flame" Example : 
Hold a copper cent in the flame of an alcohol lamp. 

4* 




Common Blow-pipe. 




Reducin r flame. 



82 ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY. 

In the " reducing flame" its rust or oxyd of copper will 

be all cleaned off, and the cent will shine as brightly 

^^^^n^,^ as if just from the mint. 

^^^^^^^^^^^ I n the " oxydizing flame" 

|F--™^ the various oxyds of cop- 

li per will be formed over the 

^-s-JjJP^ surface, and so the most 

- ,. . a beautiful play of colors 

Oxydizing flame. x J 

will flash from side to side 
as we move the cent from one part to the other. 

The Atmosphere. 

The " air we breathe" consists of N, O, C0 2 , and 
watery vapor. The first composes f , the second \ 9 
the third yoVo, an d the last a variable proportion. 
The N and O form so large a part, that they are con- 
sidered in ordinary calculation to compose the whole 
atmosphere. A very clear idea of the proportion of 
these several constituents may be formed by conceiv- 
ing the air, not as now dense near the surface of the 
earth, and gradually becoming rarified as we ascend 
to is extreme limit of 50 miles, but of a density 
throughout equal to that which it now possesses near 
the earth. The atmosphere would then be but about 
five miles high. The vapor would form a sheet of 
HO over the ground five inches deep, next the C0 2 
a layer of 13 feet, then the N a layer of one mile, and 
last of all, the O a layer of four miles. ( Graham.) In 
this arrangement we have supposed the gases to be 
placed in the order of their specific gravity. The 



THE ATMOSPHERE. 83 

atmosphere is not thus composed in fact, the various 
gases being equally mingled throughout, in accord- 
ance with a principle called the " Lata of the Diffu- 
sion of Gases." If we throw a piece of lead into a 
brook, it will settle instantly to the bottom by the 
law of gravitation, and remain there forever by the 
law of inertia. But if we throw out into the atmos- 
phere a quantity of C0 2 , it sinks for an instant, then 
immediately begins to mingle with the surrounding 
air, and is soon entirely dissipated. Example : If we 
invert an open-mouthed bottle Thill of H over another 
full of C0 2 , in a few hours the H, light as it is, will 
have crawled down into the lower jar ; and the C0 2 , 
heavy as it is, will have crawled up into the upper 
jar ; and the gases will be found equally mixed. By 
this law the proportion of the elements of the at- 
mosphere is the same everywhere, and has not varied 
within historic times. Samples have been analyzed 
from every conceivable place, from polar and torrid 
regions, from prairies and mountain-tops, from bal- 
loons and mines, and even from bottles-full sealed 
up in the ruins of Herculaneum, and the result is 
the same. These gases do not form a chemical 
compound, but a mere mechanical mixture, and 
they are as distinct in the air as so many grains of 
wheat and corn mingled in a measure. Each of these 
has its separate use and mission. The action of O 
and N we have already seen. 

Uses of CO^ — This bears the same relation to 
vegetable that O does to animal life. The leaf — the 






84 ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY. 

plant-lungs — through its million of little stommata, 
or mouths, drinks in the C0 2 . In that minute leaf- 
laboratory, by the action of the sunbeam, the C0 2 
is decomposed, the C being applied to build up the 
plant, and the O returned to the air for our use. 
Plants breathe out O as we breathe out C0 2 . We 
furnish vegetables with air for their use, and they in 
turn supply us. There is thus a mutual dependence 
between the animal and the vegetable world. Each 
relies upon the other. Deprived of plants we would 
soon exhaust the O from the air, supply its place 
with C0 2 , and die; while they, removed from us, 
would soon exhaust the C0 2 , and die as certainly. 
"We poison the air while they purify it. Each tiny 
leaf and spire of grass is thus imbibing our foul 
breath, and returning it to us pure and fresh.* This 
interchange of office is so exactly balanced, that, as 
we have seen, the proportion of C0 2 and of O never 
varies. " Two hundred million tons of coal are now 
annually burned, producing six hundred million tons 

* In connection with this subject it is well to notice that the 
current idea, that plants exhale C0 2 at night, is now known 
to be erroneous. They purify the air while the sunlight shines 
upon them, and in darkness are at rest. Plants in a room are, 
therefore, healthy, unless they are of such varieties as emit a 
poisonous odor. Certainly the freshness and cheeriness given to 
an apartment by a stand of flowers, or even a few pots in a win- 
dow-bench, must delight all ; while the refining influence of the 
beautiful in nature would suggest the propriety of adorning our 
dwellings in this simple manner, did not chemistiy teach its prac- 
tical utility as a mode of purifying the air. 



THE ATMOSPHERE. 85 

of C0 2 . A century ago, hardly a fraction of that 
amount was burned, yet this enormous aggregate has 
not changed the proportion in the least." ( Youmans.) 

Use of Watery Vapor. — We have already seen the 
uses of HO. As vapor, it is everywhere present and 
ready to supply the wants of animals and plants. 
Were the air dry, our flesh would shrivel into that 
of a mummy, and leaves would wither as they do in 
an African simoom. Rivers and streams flow to the 
ocean ; yet all their fountains are fed by the currents 
that move in the air above us. HO rises in the air 
as vapor, flows on to colder regions, falls as rain, 
dew, snow, or hail, and then working as it goes what- 
ever it finds to do, moistening a plant or turning a 
water-wheel, it finds its way back to the ocean. 
Thus Niagara itself must first have risen to the 
clouds as vapor before it can fall as a cataract. 

Permanence of the Atmosphere. — Did the ele- 
ments readily unite to form nitric acid, instead of, as 
now, with great difficulty, and only in a thunder-, 
storm, we would be constantly exposed to a shower 
of this corrosive acid that would be destructive to 
all vegetation, clothing, and even our bodies thejn- 
selves. — O and N have never been solidified or lique- 
fied by the severest cold or pressure, while C0 2 re- 
quires a force that is never reached in nature. 
Watery vapor, on the contrary, is deposited as dew 
or rain by a slight change of temperature ; this is 
necessary to supply the wants of vegetation and life. 
But were the same true of the other constituents, 



86 ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY. 

they would come raining down upon us in most dis- 
astrous showers; and in winter we would be com- 
pelled to melt what air we should need, and carry a 
supply with us constantly. Life itself would be un- 
endurable under such circumstances. Again, the 
permanence of the air produces all the uniformity 
of sound. Were the proportions of the atmosphere 
to change, all "familiar voices" would become strange 
and uncouth to us, while the harmonies of music 
would shock us with unwonted discord. If, by some 
means, the air of a concert-room could be changed 
to H, for instance, the bass voices would become ir- 
resistibly comic and shrill, while the tenor would 
emulate railway whistles. It is pleasant to notice 
how each element of the air is adapted for a special 
work, and all fitted to the present order of nature. 

The Haloids. 

Chlorine... Symb, CI; Equiv-, 355; Spec- Grav-, 247 

Iodine " I; " 1268; " 2-47 

Bromine-.. " Br; " -80; " (at 30°), 318 

Fluorine... " Fl; " 19; " 131 

These four elements are closely allied, and form a 
class of compounds known as the haloid salts, from 
hats, salt, because they resemble common salt. 

Chlorine is named from its green color. It is 
chiefly found in common salt, of which it forms 60 
per cent., and is made by moderately heating it with 
black oxyd of manganese, sulphuric acid, and water. 
This mixture liberates the gas in great quantities. 



CHLORINE. 



87 



*i » \ > 



It is heavier tlian common air, and so may be col- 
lected by displacement. 




Making Chlorine. 

Properties. — It has a greenish-yellow color, and a 
peculiarly disagreeable odor. It produces a suffo- 
cating cough, which can be relieved by breathing 
ammonia or ether. Arsenic, antimony, Dutch gold- 
leaf, phosphorus, etc., combine with it so rapidly as 
to inflame ; — powdered antimony producing a shower 
of brilliant sparks when slowly dropped into a jar 
of CI. Cold water absorbs about twice its volume 
of the gas, which soon turns to hydro- 
chloric acid (HC1) in the sunlight. It has 
such a powerful affinity for H, that it will 
even attract it out of a moist organic body, 
and form HC1. It acts thus upon turpen- 
tine, depositing its C in great flakes of soot. 
It discharges the color of indigo, ink, wine, _ 

° o ' ' ' Turpentine 

etc., almost instantaneously. It has no inCL 
effect on printers' ink, as that contains no H. 




* 



88 



ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY. 



Hydrochloric Acid (HC1) — Muriatic Acid. — When 

CI and H are mixed and ex- 
posed to the direct sunlight 
they unite with an explosion. 
In the arts, HC1 is prepared 
from sulphuric acid and com- 
mon salt. 



NaCl + SOa.HO 



Making HC1. 





NaO . S0 3 + HC1 



Properties. — It is an irrespirable, irritating, acid 
gas, with an intense attraction for HO, which causes 
it to produce white fumes in the air. Water absorbs 
480 times its bulk, forming the liquid known as 
" Muriatic Acid." It unites with the metals, and 
forms chlorides. When pure it is colorless, but has 
ordinarily a yellow tinge, due to various impurities. 
Its tests are ammonia, with which it forms a white 
cloud of sal-ammoniac fumes, and nitrate of silver, 
from which it precipitates chloride of silver. With 
N0 5 it forms aqua-regia, or royal water, so named 
because it dissolves gold, the "king of the metals." 
It sets free chlorine, which, in its nascent state, at- 
tacks the gold and combines with it. „ 

Chloride of Lime (Bleaching Powder). — This is 
prepared by passing a current of CI over pans of 



CHLORINE. 89 

fresh slacked lime. It is much used in bleaching 
and as a disinfectant. 

Bleaching. — In domestic bleaching the cloth is first 
boiled with strong soap, to dissolve all the grease 
and wax, and then laid upon the grass, being fre- 
quently wet to hasten the action of the air and sun. 
The dew seems to have a peculiar influence, while 
the corrosive ozone of the atmosphere doubtless aids 
in the process. The H of the coloring matter unites 
with the O of the air or dew, forming HO, and thus 
destroying the coloring compound. This was essen- 
tially the process long pursued in Holland, where 
all linens were formerly carried for bleaching : hence 
the term "Holland linen," still in use. The HO 
about Haarlem was thought to have peculiar prop- 
erties, and no other could compete with it. Cloths 
sent there were kept the entire summer, and were 
returned in the fall. Later a similar plan was 
adopted in England. But the vast extent of grass- 
land required, the time occupied, and the temptation 
to theft, made the process extremely tedious and 
expensive. The statute laws of that time abound in 
penalties for cloth stealing. It is estimated that all 
the men, women, and children in the world could 
not, by the old way, bleach all the cloth that is now 
used. At present the cloth is well washed, and 
boiled in water with strong alkalies, to remove the 
grease, &c. ; next it is passed through a solution of 
chloride of lime, and lastly through diluted S0 3 . In 
this step the S0 3 unites with the lime, and sets free 



90 ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY. 

the CI, which in turn combines with the H of the 
coloring matter, forming HC1, and thus bleaches 
the cloth most perfectly. About twenty-four hours 
are required for this process, and the cost is not 
quite a cent per yard. Paper rags are bleached in 
the same way in paper-mills. Stains can be re- 
moved from uncolored cloth by a little chloride of 
soda (Labarraque's Solution), which can be obtained 
of any druggist. Place the cloth in this liquid, and 
if obstinate, pour on a little boiling HO, or place it 
in the sun for some hours. Then rinse thoroughly 
in cold HO, and dry. 

Disinfectant, — Chlorine is a powerful disinfectant. 
It breaks up the offensive substance by uniting with 
its H, as in bleaching. Other disinfectants, as burnt 
paper, sugar, etc., only disguise the ill odor by sub- 
stituting a stronger one. In the sick-room CI is set 
free from chloride of lime by exposing it to the air 
in a saucer with a little HO. The gas soon passes 
off, though the process may be hastened by adding 
a few drops of dilute S0 3 . A handful of chloride of 
lime, thrown under the floor, will vanquish even a 
dead mouse, or any other odoriferous domestic ani- 
mal, living or dead. 

Bromine — named from its bad odor — is a poison- 
ous, volatile, deep-red liquid, with the general prop- 
erties of CI. It is principally found in sea-water, 
and forms .bromides with the metals, which are used 
in photography. 

Fluorine is the only element that will not unite 



FLUOBINE.— IODINE. 91 

with O, and for this reason exists in the enamel of 
the teeth. It is found in Derbyshire or fluor spar 
(Ca . Fl), of which beautiful ornaments are made. 
It unites with H, forming hydrofluoric acid (HF1), 
noted for its corrosive action on glass. This eats out 
the silica or sand from the glass, and is therefore 
used for etching labels on glass bottles and names 
on shop-windows. Example : Powdered fluor spar 
is placed in a lead tray, and covered with dilute 
S0 3 . The heat of a lamp applied beneath, for a 
moment only, liberates the gas in white fumes very 
rapidly. The plate of glass is covered with wax, 
and the design to be etched is traced upon it with 
a sharp-pointed instrument. This is then laid over 
the tray, and the escaping gas soon etches the lines 
laid bare into an appearance like ground glass. 
A solution of HF1 in HO is often sold for this pur- 
pose. It is kept in lead or gutta-percha bottles, 
combines with HO with a hissing sound, like red- 
hot iron, and must be handled with care, as a 
minute drop even will sometimes produce an in- 
curable ulcer. 

Iodine is named from its beautiful violet-colored 
vapor. It is made from kelp — the ashes of sea-weed, 
and is found in sea-water and in some mineral springs. 
It has a bluish-black, metallic appearance, and is 
sparingly soluble in HO, but readily in ether or alco- 
hol. It inflames spontaneously when in contact with 
phosphorus. Its compounds with the metals, called 
the iodides, are remarkable for their variety and bril- 



92 ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY. 

liancy of color. It stains cloth a yellowish tint, which 
may be removed by a solution of iodide of potassium. 
Its test is starch, forming the blue iodide of starch. 
It reveals the presence of this substance in potatoes, 
apples, etc. It is much used in medicine to scatter 
scrofulous or cutaneous eruptions and swellings. 

Boron. 

Symbol, B •••• Equivalent, 10.9. 

Boron is known in nature only in combination with 
O, as boracic acid (B0 3 ). This is found in the vol- 
canic districts of Tuscany. Here, for an area of 
about 30 miles, is a wild, mountainous region, of ter- 
rible violence and confusion. The surface is ragged 
and blasted. Everywhere there issue from the ground 
jets of steam, filling the air with most offensive 
odors. The earth itself shakes beneath the feet, and 
frequently yields to the tread, engulfing man and 



Preparing B0 3 . 



beast. " The waters below are heard boiling with 
strange noises, and are seen breaking out upon the 



SILICON. 93 

surface. Of old, it was regarded as the entrance to 
hell. The peasants pass by in terror, counting their 
beads and imploring the protection of the Virgin." 
In the midst of this scene of horror a most lucrative 
business has been established. These jets of steam 
are charged with boracic acid. A series of basins 
are excavated up the sides of the principal moun- 
tain. These are filled with cold HO from the neigh- 
boring springs. Into these basins the jets of steam 
are conducted. The HO absorbs the boracic acid, 
and becomes itself heated to the boiling-point. It 
is then drawn off into the next lower basin. This 
process is continued until the bottom one is reached, 
when the HO runs into leaden pans heated by the 
steam from the earth ; here the HO is evaporated, 
and the boracic acid is collected. 3,000,000 lbs. are 
sold per annum. 

Borax is a biborate of soda (Na0.2B0 3 ). It is em- 
ployed largely in welding. It dissolves the oxyd of 
the metal, and keeps the surface bright for soldering. 
It softens hard water by uniting with the soluble 
salts of lime or magnesia, and making insoluble ones 
which settle and form a thin sediment in the bottom 
of pitchers in which it is placed. 

Silicon. 

Symbol, Si ... Equivalent, 14. 

Sources. — -This is commonly found in combination 
with O, as silicic acid, silica, silex or quartz (Si0 2 ). 
It composes 45 per cent, of the crust of the earth. 



94 ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY. 

It forms beautiful crystals and some of the most pre- 
cious gems. When pure, it is transparent and color- 
less, as in rock-crystal. Jasper, amethyst, agate, 
chalcedony, opal, topaz, chrysoprase, sardonyx, etc., 
are all common flint-stone or quartz, colored with 
some metallic oxyd. Sand is mainly fine quartz, 
which, when hardened and cemented, we call sand- 
stone. Yellow or red sand is colored by iron-rust. 

Properties. —It is tasteless, odorless, and colorless. 
It seems very strange to call such an inert substance 
an acid ; yet it is a true acid, since it unites with the 
alkalies, neutralizes their properties, and forms a 
large class of salts known as the silicates, which 
are found in the most common rocks— Example : 
granite. 

Silica in Soil and Plants. — Silica is insoluble in 
HO, unless it contains some alkali. When the sili- 
cates, so abundant in rocks, disintegrate and form 
soil, the alkali and silica are both dissolved in the 
water, and taken up by the roots of plants. We see 
the silica as grit in maple-sugar, or as deposited on 
the surface of scouring-rushes or sword-grass, on 
w T hich we have so often cut our fingers. It gives 
stiffness to the stalks of wheat and other grains, and 
produces the hard, shiny surface of bamboo, corn, etc. 

Petrifaction. — Certain springs contain large quan- 
tities of some alkali ; their waters, therefore, dissolve 
silica abundantly. If we place a bit of wood in 
them, as fast as it decays, particles of silica will 
take its place — atom by atom — and thus petrify the 



SULPHUK. 95 

wood. Tlie wood has not been changed to stone, but 
lias been replaced by stone. 

Sulphur. 

Symbol, S •••• Equivalent, 16 .... Specific Gravity, 2. 

Sources. — Sulphur is found native in volcanic re- 
gions. It is mined at Mount iEtna in great quanti- 
ties. Combined with the metals it forms sulphurets, 
known as cinnabar, iron pyrites, etc. Combined with 
S0 3 it exists in gypsum (plaster), heavy spar, and 
other sulphates. It is found in^the hair, and many 
dyes contain lead which unites with this S, and forms 
a black compound that stains the hair. It is con- 
tained in eggs, and so tarnishes our spoons by form- 
ing a sulphuret of silver. It is always present in the 
flesh, and hence manifests itself in our perspiration ; 
with some persons it is so abundant as to produce a 
disagreeable odor. In commerce it is sold as brim- 
stone, formed by melting S and running it into moulds ; 
also as flowers of sulphur, obtained by sublimation. 

Properties. — It is insoluble in HO, and hence 
tasteless, although when taken in molasses it seems 
otherwise. Its solvent is bisulphide of carbon, but 
it will dissolve somewhat in oil of turpentine. It is 
a non-conductor of heat, and crackles when we 
grasp it with a warm hand. It manifests itself un- 
der three allotropic forms : 1st, octohedron crystals ; 
2d, prismatic crystals; 3d, an amorphous (without 
form) or uncrystallized state. The last is the most 
interesting. Example : If sulphur be melted, and 



96 ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY. 

then heated up to 480°, it changes into a thick, 
viscid, dark-colored liquid like molasses, which, if 
poured into cold water, is elastic like india-rubber. 
In this form it is used for taking impressions of 
medals, coins, &c. 

Sulphurous Acid (S0 2 ), an irrespirable, suffocating 
gas, is formed by S burning in the air, as in the 
lighting of a match. It is very poisonous, and ex- 
tinguishes combustion. If our "chimney burns" 
at any time, we can easily quench the flame by pour- 
ing a little S into the stove. Its compounds are 
called sulphites. 

Uses. — It is used for bleaching silk, straw, and 
w r oollen fabrics. CI cannot be used for these sub- 
stances, as it turns them yellow, but S0 2 unites with 
the coloring matter, and forms a colorless compound. 
Its action is therefore very different from that of 
CI. Example : A red rose, bleached in the fumes of 
burning S, can be restored to its original color by 
a little very dilute S0 3 . This acid being stronger, 
neutralizes the action of the S0 2 . New flannels, 
washed in strong soap, turn yellow, because the 
alkali of the soap unites with the S0 2 used in 
bleaching the cloth, and thus sets free the original 
color. 

Sulphuric Acid (S0 3 ) — Oil of Vitriol, the "King 
of the Acids'' — This acid is of the utmost impor- 
tance to the manufacturer and chemist, as it is used 
in the preparation of nearly all other kinds, forming 
many valuable compounds. The acid of the shops 



SULPHUR. 



97 



is a strong solution of the gas in HO. Its com- 
pounds are called sulphates. 

Preparation. — Example: If in a jar we burn a 
little S, it will soon become filled with the fumes of 
S0 2 . One atom of O added to this S0 2 would make 
it S0 3 . It will be remembered that N0 5 easily parts 
with its O. Now if we stir the fumes with a swab 
wet with N0 5 , we will notice that the white gas in 
the jar turns red, and will recognize the old " nitrous 
acid fumes," and on testing w will find 
S0 3 in the jar, especially if there be any 
HO at the bottom to absorb it. The nitric 
acid has turned the S0 2 into S0 3 . This is 
essentially the plan pursued in its manu- 
facture on a large scale. An immense 
chamber, perhaps three hundred feet in 
length, is lined with lead and intersected 
by perforated leaden partitions to mix the gases 
more thoroughly as they pass through. In this are 




Making SO a 
and SOo. 




Manufacture of S0 3 . 

admitted steam, fumes of burning sulphur, and nitric 
acid, from furnaces at the side. 



N0 5 + 3 SO, 



N0 2 + 3SO 



The N0 5 gives up 3 atoms 
of O to 3 atoms of S0 2 , thus 
making 3 atoms of S0 3 , and 

5 




98 ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY. 

becoming itself N0 2 . Not 

content with the work now ^0 2 + 2 O -f 2 SO 
done, in its anxiety to sup- 
ply the wants of the S0 2 , the 
N0 2 goes to the air present 
in the room, takes up 2 
atoms of O, becoming N0 4 , ^0 2 + 2 S0 3 
and flies back with them 

to the S0 2 , making 2 atoms more of S0 3 , then 
turns to the air again for a fresh supply. It thus 
carries the O back and forth to such an extent 
that a small quantity of N0 5 , introduced in the 
beginning, will make an almost unlimited amount of 
S0 3 . The steam hastens the chemical operation 
by its warmth and moisture. There is a thin 
layer of HO on the floor. This absorbs the S0 3 , 
and is gradually drawn off and condensed by 
evaporation in lead pans, and finally, when the 
S0 3 begins to corrode the lead, in large platinum 
vessels. It is lastly put in large bottles packed in 
boxes called carboys, when it is ready for transpor- 
tation. 

Properties. — It is a dense oily liquid, without odor, 
and of a brownish color. It freezes at 30° and boils 
at 640°. It is a hydrate, containing one atom of 
HO to one of S0 3 , thus S0 3 .HO. Its afiinity for 
moisture is most remarkable. If exposed in an open 
bottle it gradually absorbs the water of the air, and 
increases in bulk. It will in time double its weight 
in this way. It blackens wood and other organic 



SULPHUR. 99 

substances, by taking away their HO and leaving 
the C. When S0 3 is mixed with HO, it occupies 
less space than before, and liberates much heat; 
4 parts of acid to 1 of HO will boil a test-tube of 
HO. It commonly contains lead, which falls as a 
milky precipitate when the acid is mixed with HO. 
It is the strongest of the acids, and will displace the 
others from their compounds. It stains cloth red, 
but the color can be restored with any alkali ; — NaO. 
C0 2 is best. Its test is chloride of barium, which 
forms a beautiful white cloudy^precipitate. In this 
way a drop of S0 3 in a quart of HO can be distinctly 
detected. Experiment : Strong oil of vitriol poured 
on a little loaf-sugar moistened with hot water, will 
cause an energetic boiling and a copious formation 
of black charcoal. Sugar consists of water and 
charcoal, and gives up all the former to satisfy the 
appetite of the S0 3 . 

Nordhausen Acn> is the ancient oil of vitriol made 
in Germany from green vitriol. It is the strongest 
sulphuric acid known, and may be separated from its 
HO by distillation, when the acid will appear as 
white silky flakes, which may be handled with im- 
punity, and will hiss when thrown into HO. 

Sulphide of Hydrogen (HS) — Sulphuretted Hy- 
drogen. — This gas is produced in the decay of organic 
matter, and is always found near cesspools, drains, 
and sinks, turning the paint black and emitting a dis- 
agreeable smell. It gives the characteristic odor to 
the mineral waters of Avon, Clifton, Sharon, and 



100 



ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY. 



Saratoga. It is prepared by the action of dilute S0 3 
upon sulpliuret of iron. 




Making HS. 



SO, . HO \- FeS 




FeO . S0 3 + HS 



It has the disgusting odor of rotten eggs, is very- 
poisonous, and, therefore, makes an open sewer very- 
destructive to health. Its solution in HO is much 
used in the laboratory to precipitate the metals as 
a black sulphuret. Its test is acetate of lead (sugar 
of lead). 

Bisulphide of Carbon (CS 2 ) is produced by passing 
the vapor of S over red-hot coals. It is a volatile, 
colorless liquid, and has never been frozen. It is 
strange that a yellow odorless solid should unite 
with a black odorless solid to form such a colorless 
odoriferous liquid ; it thus illustrates very finely the 



PHOSPHORUS. 



101 



power of chemical affinity. It readily dissolves sul- 
phur, phosphorus, and iodine. It is a powerful re- 
fractor of light, and is used for filling hollow glass 
prisms — the most perfect known — for experiments 
with the solar spectrum. 



Phosphorus. 

Symbol, p.... Equivalent, 31 •••Specific Gravity, 1.83. 

Its name signifies light-bearer, given because of its 
glowing in the dark. It was called by the old al- 
chemists, " the son of Satan." 

Sources. — It exists in small quantities in rocks, and 
by their decay passes into 
the soil, is taken up by 
plants, is then stored in their 
seeds (wheat, corn, oats, etc.), 
and finally passes into our 
system. As a phosphate of 
lime, it is the principal con- 
stituent of our bones. As 

pure P, it is SO necessary to Manufacture of p. 

the operation of the brain that the alchemists had a 
saying, " No phosphorus, no brains." 

Preparation. — It is prepared in immense quantities 
from bones. These are first calcined to whiteness 
to burn out the animal matter, then treated with S0 3 
to remove the lime, and lastly heated to a high tem- 
perature with C to deoxydize them, when the P 
distils as a vapor, which is condensed under HO. 




102 ELEMENTARY CHEMISTBY. 

Properties. — It is a waxy, transparent solid, at all 
temperatures above 32° emits a feeble light, and at 
60° bursts into a flame. It is therefore so combus- 
tible that it should be handled with the utmost care, 
always" kept and cut under HO, and never used ex- 
cept in very small quantities. Its burns are deep 
and dangerous. It is very poisonous, and is the basis 
of all rat-exterminators. Its vapor produces hor- 
rible ulcerations of the jaw-bone in workmen who 
use it. In burning, it unites with five atoms of 0, 
forming phosphoric acid (P0 5 ). Its compounds are 
called phosphates. 

Amorphous Form. — Heated for 48 hours, at a tem- 
perature of 480°, in a close vessel, P is changed into 
a brick-red powder, which seems to have lost all the 
properties of P. It can be handled with impunity, 
and carried in the pocket like so much snuff. By 
heating it again to a higher point, it goes back to its 
old form. 

Uses. — Matches. — The principal use of P is in the 
making of matches. The match is first dipped in 
melted sulphur and dried, then in a paste of P, nitre 
and glue, which completes the process. The object of 
the nitre is to furnish O to quicken the combustion. 
Instead of this, chlorate of potash is sometimes used, 
and can be recognized by the crackling sound and 
jets of flame when ignited. The tips are colored 
by red-lead, or Prussian blue, mixed in the paste. 
When a match is burned, the reaction is as follows : 
first, the friction ignites the P, which burns, forming 



PHOSPHORUS. 103 

P0 5 ; this produces heat enough to inflame the S, 
which makes S0 2 ; lastly, the wood takes fire, and 
forms C0 2 and HO. Thus there are four compounds 
produced in the ignition of a single match. During 
the burning of the S, the value qf the match is en- 
tirely prospective, as the S0 2 is not a supporter of 
combustion. 

Phosphorescence.— The luminous appearance of 
putrefying fish and decayed wood are well known. 
The latter is sometimes called " fox-fire." The 
" glow-worm's fitful light" is associated with our mem- 
ory of beautiful summer evenings. In the West In- 
dies, fire-flies are found that emit a green light when 
resting, and a red one when flying. These are so bril- 
liant that one will furnish light enough for reading. 
The natives wear them for ornaments on their bon- 
nets, and illuminate their houses by suspending them 
as lamps. — The ocean, at times, takes on strange 
colors, and the sailor finds his vessel plowing at one 
time apparently a furrow of fire, and at another one. 
of liquid gold. The water is all aglow, and the flames 
seem to leap and dance with the waves or the motion 
of the ship. These phenomena are produced by 
multitudes of animalcule which frequent certain 
seas. Phosphorescence is generally attributed to 
the gradual oxydation of the phosphorus secreted 
by the animal or plant. 

Phosphuretteb Hydrogen (PH 3 ) is formed in the 
decomposition of bones and organic substances. With 
HS it gives rise to the odor of slaughter-houses. It 



104 ELEMENTAEY CHEMISTRY. 

is a poisonous gas, remarkable only for its disgust- 
ing odor and the singular beauty of the rings formed 
by its smoke ascending through the air. It is pre- 
pared by dropping bits of phosphuret of calcium into 
HO. It has been thought by some that the Will-o'- 
wisp, Jack-o'-the-lantern, etc., as seen near grave- 
yards and in swampy places, is produced by this gas 
coming off from decaying substances, and igniting as 
it reaches the air. 



THE METALS. 

THE METALS OF THE ALKALIES. 

These are potassium, sodium, lithium, and ammo- 
nium. The last two are of no general interest. 



Potassium. 

Symbol, K ... Equivalent, 39 ••. Specific Gravity, 0.85. 

Source. — This metal was discovered by Sir Humph- 
rey Davy, in 1807, by the decomposing action of a 
powerful galvanic battery. By passing the current 
through potassa (KO), the K went to the negative 
pole, and the O to the positive. In the same manner 
he separated the metals sodium, barium, strontium, 
and calcium. This discovery constituted a most im- 
portant epoch in chemistry. K is found abundantly 
in nature in the various rocks which, by their decom- 



POTASSIUM. 105 

position, furnish it to the plants, from whence we 
obtain our entire supply. 

Properties. — It is a silvery-white metal, soft like 
wax, and light enough to float like cork. Its affinity 
for O is so great, that it is always kept under the 
surface of naphtha, which contains no O. K, when 
thrown on HO, decomposes it, unites with its O, 
forming KO, and sets free the H. ^f^D 

The heat developed is so great, -^=^z7 i ^===^ i 
that the H catches fire and burns^ ^^SmSss^^^' 
with some volatilized K, which Potassium on water * 
tinges the flame with a beautiful purple* tint. If the 
HO be first colored with red litmus, it will become 
blue by the alkali (KO) formed. 

Potassa (KO) — Potash. — This is a grayish-white 
solid, made from KO.C0 2 by the action of lime. It 
is the most powerful alkali. It neutralizes the acicls, 
and turns red litmus to blue. It is used to cauterize 
the flesh, and is hence commonly called "caustic 
potash." It dissolves the cuticle of the finger which 
touches it, and so has an unctuous feel, as we see in 
strong soap. It unites with grease, forming soap, 
and is extensively used for that purpose. Its affinity 
for HO is so great, that it is never known except as 
a hydrate (KO.HO). It also absorbs C0 2 from the 
air, and must be kept in close-stoppered bottles. It 
is a corrosive, deadly poison. Its test is bichloride 
of platinum, forming a yellow precipitate from a so- 
lution. 

Cabbonate of Potash (KO.C0 2 )— Pearlash.— Pot- 

5* 



106 ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY. 

ash is contained in plants, combined with various 
acids, such as tartaric, malic, oxalic, etc. When the 
wood is burned, the C0 2 of the fire drives off these 
acids, and combines with the KO, forming KO.C0 2 . 
The ashes are then leached, and the lye which is 
formed is evaporated until the KO.C0 2 crystallizes. 
Birch gives the purest potash, while the leaves fur- 
nish 25 times as much as the heart of a tree. Where 
wood is abundant, immense quantities are burned 
solely for the ashes. Saleratus is a bicarbonate of 
potash (K0.2C0 2 ), and is formed by passing a current 
of C0 2 through the carbonate. 

Nitrate oe Potash (KO.N0 5 ) — Saltpetre : Nitre. — 
This salt is found abundantly in Egypt and the East 
Indies, mixed with the soil. It is obtained thence by 
leaching. It is formed artificially by piling up great 
heaps of mortar, refuse of sinks, stables, etc. In 
about three years these are washed, and each cubic 
foot of the mixture will furnish four or five ounces 
of saltpetre. It was manufactured in the Mammoth 
Cave, Kentucky, during the war of 1812. It dissolves 
in one-third of its weight of hot water. 

Properties and Uses. — It is cooling and an antisep- 
tic : hence it is used for salting meat, to which it 
gives a reddish tint. It parts with its O readily and 
burns brilliantly. Every government keeps a large 
supply on hand for making gunpowder, in the event 
of war. Gunpowder is composed of three parts char- 
coal, and one each of saltpetre and sulphur. Its 
explosive force is due to the expansive power of the 



SODIUM. 107 

gases formed. The combustion is started by the 
saltpetre giving up all its O to burn the S and C. 
The reaction that ensues may be very simply stated 
as follows : 



KO.N0 5 + S + 30 




KS + N + 3C0 2 



N and C0 2 are gases, and in .that great heat of 
nearly 2,000°, high enough to melt gold or copper, 
the KS becomes a vapor. "With the sudden increase 
of temperature, they expand till they occupy 2,000 
times the space of the powder. The bad odor of 
burnt powder is due to the slow formation of HS 
in the residuum. Fireworks are composed of gun- 
powder ground with additional and S, and some 
coloring matter. Zinc filings produce green stars, 
steel filings variegated ones. A little chlorate of 
potassa tinges the flame with crimson. Salts of 
copper give a blue or a green light, and camphor a 
pure white one. 

Sodium. 

Symbol, Na ■ • . . Equivalent, 23 - . • Specific Gravity, 0.972. 

This metal is found principally in common salt. 
It is very like K in its appearance, properties, and 
reaction. When thrown on HO it rolls over its sur- 
face like a beautiful little silver ball : if the HO be 
heated, it bursts into a yellowish blaze. The test of 



108 ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY. 

all the soda salts is the yellow tint which their solu- 
tion in alcohol gives to the flame. 

Chloride of Sodium (NaCl), common salt, is the 
only mineral substance which is absolutely necessary 
to the life alike of all human beings and the higher 
order of animals. Among the many cruel punish- 
ments inflicted in China, deprivation of salt is said 
to be one, causing at first a most indescribable long- 
ing and anxiety, and finally a painful death. Dr. 
Draper tells us that the salt and the HO in the 
stomach undergo the following reaction : 



NaCl + HO 




NaO+HCl 



Both these are essential in forming gastric juice 
and bile, and to make enough of them to keep up 
the proper digestion of our food, requires about one- 
third of an ounce of NaCl. As salt is so universally 
necessary, it is found everywhere. Our Father, in 
fitting up a home for us, did not forget to provide 
for all our wants. The quantity of salt in the ocean 
is said to be equal to five times the mass of the Alps. 
Salt lakes are scattered here and there ; saline springs 
abound ; and besides these, in the earth are stored 
great mines, probably produced by the evaporation 
of salt lakes in some ancient period of the earth's 
history. At Cracow, Poland, is a bed twelve hun- 
dred miles long, twenty miles wide, and a quarter 



SODIUM. 



109 



of a mile thick. In Spain, and lately in Idaho, it 
has been quarried out in perfect cubes, transparent 
as glass, so that a person can read through a large 
mass. On the sea-shore it is manufactured by the 
evaporation of sea-water, each gallon containing 
about four ounces. At Syracuse, New York, near 
by and underneath the Onondaga Lake, is appa- 
rently a great basin of salt-water, separated from 
the fresh-water above by an impervious bed of clay. 
Penetrating this to a depth ofjibout seven hundred 
feet, the saline water is pumped up in immense 
quantities. The State sells this to salt manufactur- 
ers, on the payment of a cent per bushel on the salt 
made. The HO is evaporated by heating in large 
iron kettles or vats, or in the sun, whence the name 
"solar salt." If boiled down rapidly, fine table- 
salt is made ; if more slowly, coarse salt, as large 
crystals have time to form. Frequently they assume 
a "hopper shape" — one cube appears, then others 






Hopper Form. 



110 



CHEMISTRY. 



collect at its edges, and gradually settle, -until a hol- 
low pyramid of salt-cubes, with its apex downward, 
is formed. About seven million barrels are made 
annually at this city. Salt dissolves equally well in 
hot or in cold water, and a saturated solution (one 
containing all it will dissolve) has 37 per cent, 
of salt. 

Sulphate of Soda (NaO.S0 3 ), Glaubers salts, 
named from the discoverer, is made from common 
salt. 

NaCl + HO.SOo 




NaO.SCX + HC1 



Experiment : Make a saturated solution of sulphate 
of soda, and with it fill a bottle. Either put in the 
glass stopple or cover the top with a thin layer oi 
oil, and let the bottle stand. The salts will remain 
for weeks or even months without crystallizing ; but 
if they be taken up, and shaken ever so little, the 
whole mass will instantly form into crystals, so fill- 
ing the bottle that not a drop of water will escape, 
even if it be inverted. Should there be any hesita- 
tion in crystallizing at the moment, drop into the 
bottle a minute crystal of Glauber's Salts, and the 
effect will instantly be seen in the darting of new 
crystals in every direction. 

Carbonate of Soda (NaO.C0 2 ), sal-soda, is used 
in immense quantities in the manufacture of glass, 



SODIUM. Ill 

soap, etc. (See Appendix, Problem 40.) It is em- 
ployed, like borax, to soften hard water, by com- 
bining with the lime and magnesia, and making 
insoluble carbonates, which settle to the bottom. 
In washing, it unites with the grease in the clothes, 
and forms soap. 

Bicakbonate of Soda (NaO . 2 C0 2 ) is the " soda" 
of the cook-room, and is formed, like saleratus, from 
its carbonate. 

Silicate of Soda and Lime (NaO . Si0 2 + CaO. 
Si0 2 ) — French plate and tvindow glass. Glass was 
known to the ancients. Hieroglyphics, that are as 
old as the sojourn of the Israelites in Egypt, repre- 
sent glass-blowers at work, much after the fashion 
of the present. In the ruins of Nineveh, articles 
of glass, such as vases, lenses, etc., have been 
discovered. Mummies, three thousand years old, 
are adorned with glass beads. The inventor is 
not known. Pliny tells us that some merchants, 
once encamping on the sea-shore, found in the 
remains of their fire bits of glass, formed from 
the sand and ashes of the sea-weed by the heat ; 
but this is impossible, as an open fire could not be 
sufficient to melt these materials. In the fourth 
century, the glass-works at Alexandria produced 
most exquisite ornaments, with raised figures beau- 
tifully cut and gilded. As late, however, as the 
twelfth century, a house with glass windows was 
esteemed something magnificent ; and we read that 
in 1577, during Queen Elizabeth's reign, when the 



112 



ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY. 



Duke of Northumberland came to town to pass the 
winter, the windows of his castle were taken out and 
packed away for safe-keeping until spring. 

Preparation. — Glass is a double silicate, being 
composed of silica and any two of the alkaline bases, 
lime, soda, potash, or magnesia. Example : Fine 
white sand is mixed with sal-soda and lime, and 
then heated in earthen pots to the most intense 
degree for forty-eight hours. The materials fuse 
and form a double silicate of soda and lime. This 
is common window-glass. A variation in the ma- 
terials used produces different kinds of glass. The 
only essential ingredients are sand and soda or sand 
and potassa. Lime hardens and gives lustre, while 
soda imparts a green tint. Arsenic whitens it. 
Oxyd of lead is used in large quantities, as high as 
one-half the weight, to form a soft glass, which can 
be ground into imitation gems, table-ware, chande- 
lier pendants, prisms, etc. Oxyd of iron gives an 
opaque green, as in common junk or green glass 
bottles. Boracic acid increases the refractive power 
for lenses in microscopes and telescopes. 

Bohemian glass is a silicate of potash and lime, 
and thus does not show the green tint of soda. Pul- 
verized flint was formerly used for sand, and hence 
the term flint-glass. 

Colored Glass. — A small quantity of some metallic 
oxyd, melted with the glass, gives any tint desired : 
AuO gives a ruby red ; MnO, an amethyst ; CuO, an 
azure blue; As and Sb a soft white enamel, as in 



SODIUM. 113 

lamp-shades; Sn0 2 , a hard enamel, as in watch- 
faces. 

Annealing Glass. — If the glass utensils were im- 
mediately used, they would be found extremely brit- 
tle, and would drop in pieces in the most unaccount- 
able way. The heat of the hand or a draft of cool 
air would sometimes crack off the thick bottom of a 
tumbler. They are therefore cooled very gradually 
for days, which allows the particles to assume their 
natural place, and the chemical attractions to become 
equalized. This principle is beautifully illustrated 
by the chemical toy known as the " Prince Rupert 
Drop." 

Oknamental Ware. — Venetian balls or paper 
weights are made by arranging bits of colored glass 
in the form of fruits, flowers, etc., and then, inserting 
this ball into a hollow globe of transparent glass, still 
hot, the workman draws in his breath, and the 
pressure of the air above collapses the globe upon 
the colored glass, and leaves a concave surface in 
the top of the weight. The lens form always magni- 
fies the size of the figures within. 

Tubes and Beads. — In making glass tubing, the 
workman inserts his iron blowing-tube into a pot of 
melted glass, and gathers upon the end a suitable 
amount : drawing this out, he blows into the tube, 
swelling the glass into a globular form. Another 
dip into the pot and another blow increase its size, 
until at last a second workman attaches an iron rod 
to the other end. The two men then separate on a 



¥ 



114 ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY. 

rapid trot. The soft glass globe diminislies in size 
as it lengthens, until at last it hangs between them 
a glass tube of one hundred feet in length, and per- 
haps only a quarter of an inch in diameter. In 
making beads, these glass tubes are cut in small bits, 
and then worked about in a mixture of wet ashes 
and sand, until they are filled. Next they are put 
with loose sand into a rapidly-revolving cylinder 
over a hot furnace. The heat softens the glass, but 
the mixture within presses out the sides, and the 
sand grinds the edges, until at last the beads be- 
come round and perfect, and are taken out ready for 
market. 

>-' 

Ammonium. 

Ammonium (NH 4 ) has never been separated, but is 
thought to be the base of ammonia (NH 3 ). In com- 
bination NH 3 combines with an atom of HO, becom- 
ing NH 3 . HO == NH 4 . 0. This is considered as the 
oxyd of the compound radical ammonium. Ex- 
ample : N0 5 + HO + NH 3 uniting, form NH 3 .HO. 
N0 5 = NH 4 .O.N0 5 . 



CALCIUM. 115 

/• y „ 

METALS OF THE ALKALINE EARTHS. 

These are Ba, Ca, and Mg, but the last two only 
are of general interest. 

Calcium. 

Symbol, Ca-- Equivalent, 20- •• -Specific Gravity, 1.57. 

This metal exists abundantly in limestone, gyp- 
sum, and, combined with phosphoric acid, in the 
bones of the body. It is commonly known only as 
an oxyd-lime. 

CaO (Caustic or Quicklime) is obtained by heating 
limestone (CaO.C0 2 ) in large kilns. The C0 2 is 
driven off by the heat, and leaves the lime as a 
white solid. 

Properties. — It is a strong alkali, and corrodes the 
flesh. Its test is C0 2 , producing a milky precipitate 
of CaO.C0 2 . It has such a strong affinity for HO, 
that 28 lbs. of lime will absorb 9 lbs. of HO, forming 
CaO.HO, or "slacked Kme," and swelling up to three 
times its original size, with the evolution of much 
heat. It absorbs HO from the air, and then C0 2 , 
thus gradually becoming a carbonate of lime — " air- 
slacked lime." It is more soluble in cold than hot 
water. A thin film of carbonate of lime will soon 
gather over a solution of lime exposed to the air. 

Uses. — It is used in tanning leather to remove the 
hair. Whitewash is a " milk of lime" — i. e., a mixture 
of CaO and HO. In mortar, lime hardens rapidly, 



116 ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY. 

in part by uniting with the silica of the sand to form 
a silicate, and also by absorbing C0 2 from the air to 
form carbonate of lime. In this process, the HO 
which the lime absorbed in slacking is given off ; this 
causes the dampness always seen on newly-plastered 
walls when the room is first warmed. For drying 
plastering it would be much better if the C0 2 of the 
fire could be sent directly into the room, as it would 
hasten the chemical change. " If common mortar be 
protected from the air it will remain without harden- 
ing for many years. It is stated that lime still in the 
condition of a hydrate has been found in the pyra- 
mids of Egypt. When the ruins of the old castle 
of Landsberg were removed, a lime-pit, that must 
have been in existence 300 years, was found in one 
of the vaults. The surface was carbonated to the 
depth of a few inches, but the lime below this was 
fresh as if just slacked, and was used in laying the 
foundations of the new building." (Am. Cyc.) 

If the lime contains a little clav, it is called water- 
lime, and will harden under water. Lime is valuable 
as a fertilizer. It acts by rapidly decomposing all 
vegetable matter, and thus forming ammonia for the 
use of plants. It also sets free the alkalies that are 
combined with silica in the soil, and furnishes them 
to the plants. It does not itself feed the plants, as 
almost any soil contains enough lime for that purpose. 
If applied to a compost heap, it will set free am- 
monia, which can be recognized by the odor: this 
is its most valuable constituent. The NH 3 can be 



CALCIUM. 



117 



saved by sprinkling the heap with very dilute S0 3 , 
or plaster, or by mixing it with dry muck, which will 
absorb the gas. If there is any copperas (produced 
by the oxydation of iron pyrites) in the soil, the lime 
will decompose it, forming gypsum and iron-rust 
(CaO.S0 3 + Fe 2 3 ), thus changing a noxious ingre- 
dient into an element of fertility. 

Carbonate of Lime. — This includes all varieties 
of common limestone, chalk, marble, marl, and forms 
the principal part of corals, shells, and bones. Water 
charged with C0 2 absorbs carbonate of lime freely, 
which, when the gas escapes on exposure to the 
air, is deposited. In this manner, in limestone 
regions, the water trickling down into caverns has 




A Cave. 

formed " stalactites," which depend from the ceiling, 
and " stalagmites, ,, that rise from the floor. These 
frequently assume most curious and grotesque forms, 
as in the Mammoth Cave. Around many springs, 
the water, charged with lime in solution, flows over 
moss or some vegetable substance, upon which the 



118 ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY. 

lime is deposited. The spongy stone thus formed 
is calcareous tufa, or "petrified moss." Whiting is a 
carbonate of lime, made by grinding chalk. Marble 
is crystallized limestone. Chalk or marl is a porous 
kind of limestone, formed from beds of shells, but not 
compressed as in common limestone. These minute 
shells may be detected by a powerful microscope, even 
in glazing scraped from a common visiting card. 

Sulphate of Lime (CaO.S0 3 ) — Gypsum, Plaster, 
etc. — This occurs as beautiful fibrous crystals in satin 
spar, as transparent plates in selenite, and as a 
snowy-white solid in alabaster. It is soft, and can 
be cut into rings, vases, etc. "When heated it loses 
its water of crystallization, and falls into powder, 
called " Plaster of Paris," from its abundance near 
that city. Made into a paste with HO, it first swells 
up, and then immediately hardens into a solid mass. 
This property fits it for use in copying medals and 
statues, forming moulds, fastening metal tops on 
glass lamps, etc. Plaster is also used as a fertilizer. 
Its action is probably somewhat like that of lime, 
and in addition it gathers up ammonia and holds it 
for the plant. It is said that Franklin brought it 
into use by sowing it over a field of grain on the hill- 
side, so as to form, in gigantic letters, the sentence, 
" Effects of gypsum." The rapid growth produced 
soon brought out the words in bold relief, and decided 
the destiny of gypsum among farmers. Sulphite of 
lime (CaO.S0 2 ) should be distinguished from the sul- 
phate (CaO.S0 3 ). This is used for preserving cider. 



MAGNESIUM. 119 

Phosphate of Lime is contained, as we have al- 
ready seen, in bones. If now we add to them S0 3 , 
it will take up a part of the lime, making sulphate 
of lime (plaster), and the phosphoric acid thus driven 
off will take refuge with the rest of the acid and 
share its lime, forming a ^<£>er-phosphate of lime. 
This is used very extensively as a fertilizer, and is, 
as we have described, a mixture of gypsum or plas- 
ter, lime, and phosphoric acid. The last furnishes 
phosphorus to the growing plant to store in its seeds. 
Example : Corn, wheat. Phosphate of lime and 
ammonia are the valuable constituents of " guano." 

Magnesium. 

Symbol, Mg ••-. Equivalent, 12 ..-Specific Gravity, 1.7. 

Source. — Mg is found in many rocks as meer- 
schaum, soapstone, and magnesian limestone, and is 
abundant also in sea-water. It gives to a stone a 
soapy feel. When pure, it has a silvery appearance 
and lustre. It is very light and tenacious as steel, 
while it is flexible as twine. It burns in the open 
air with a brilliant white light, casting dense shadows 
through an ordinary flame. This light possesses the 
actinic or chemical principle so perfectly, that it is 
used for taking photographs at night, views of coal- 
mines, interiors of dark churches, etc. It has every 
ray of the spectrum, and so does not, as does gas- 
light, change some of the colors of an object upon 



120 



ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY. 



which it falls. Lamps for burning it are veiy exten- 
sively made in Boston. By means of clockwork, the 
metal, in the form of a narrow ribbon, is fed in front 




Magnesium Lamp. 



of a concave mirror, at the focus of which it burns. 
The product of the combustion of Mg is MgO, the 
very substance from which the metal was obtained. 



ALUMINUM. 121 

It is probable that the process of preparation will 
be cheapened, so that magnesium may be furnished 
at a rate which will bring it within the scope of the 
arts. It would be invaluable for lighting stores in 
which fancy goods are sold, or for illuminating large 
halls by means of a single lamp suspended in the 
dome. 

Carbonate of Magnesia (MgO.C0 2 ). — This is the 
" magnesia alba," or simple magnesia of the druggists. 
By driving off the C0 2 , calcined Mg is formed. Sul- 
phate of Mg (Mg.S0 3 ) is known as Epsom salts, from 
a celebrated spring in England in which it abounds. 






METALS OF THE EARTHS. 

These are Al, Gl, Zr, Y, Th, Er, Tb, Ce, Ln, D, In, 
Tl, Eb, Cs. All are extremely rare except the first. 

Aluminum. 

Sym., Al ...Equiv., 13-7 ... Spec. Grav., 2.5.... Fusing Pt. f 2283°. 

This is commonly called the " clay-met al." It is 
named from alum, in which it occurs. It is the 
metallic base of all clay, argillaceous, and granite 
rocks. It is a bright white metal, does not oxydize 
in the air, nor, like silver, tarnish by HS. It gives 
a clear musical ring ; is lighter than glass, being 
only two and a half times as heavy as HO ; is duc- 
tile, malleable, and more tenacious than Fe. It 

6 



7 



122 ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY. 

dissolves in HC1 or in common vinegar, but is proof 
against S0 3 or N0 5 . On account of its abundance 
(every clay-bank is a mine of it) and useful properties, 
it must ultimately come into common use in the arts 
and domestic life. 

Alumina (A1 2 3 ). — Pure alumina, crystallized in 
nature, forms valuable Oriental gems. They are 
variously colored by the oxyds ; — blue, in the sap- 
phire ; green, in the emerald ; yellow, in the topaz ; 
red, in the ruby. Massive impure crystals, when 
powdered, are called emery, and are used for pol- 
ishing. 

Silicate of Alumina (Al 2 3 . Si0 2 ) — common clay. 
— When the granite rocks decay, by the resistless 
and constant action of the air, rain, and frost, they 
crumble into clay. This gives firmness to the soil, 
and 'retains moisture, but is cold and tardy in pro- 
ducing vegetable growth. When free from iron, it 
is used for making tobacco-pipes. When colored 
by yellow or red oxyd of iron, it is kilown as ochre, 
and is employed in painting. Common stone and 
red earthen-ware are made from impure varieties of 
clay; porcelain and china-ware require the finest 
known. Fire-bricks and crucibles are made from a 
clay which contains much silica. Fullers' earth is 
a very porous kind, and by capillary attraction ab- 
sorbs grease and oil from cloth. 

Glazing, — When any article of earthenware has 
been moulded from clay, it is then baked. The 
ware is now porous, and would not even hold HO. 



ALUMINUM. 



123 




Baking Porcelain. 



A mixture of the coarse materials from which glass 
is made is then spread over the vessel, and heatec^ 
till it melts and forms a per- 
fect glazing upon the clay. 
NaCl and sand form the glaz- 
ing on stoneware, jugs, etc. 
PbO makes a yellowish glaze, 
which is very injurious, as it 
will dissolve even in vinegar, 
and form sugar of lead, a dead- 
ly poison. The color of pottery- 
ware and brick is due to the 
oxyd of iron present in the 
clay. Some varieties have no 
iron, and so form white ware and brick. 

Sulphate of Alumina and Potash (KO.S0 3 + 
A1 2 3 .3S0 3 + 24HO). — Alum is formed by soaking 
clay with S0 3 , in large casks for several months, 
until the sulphate of alumina is formed, when potassa 
is added, and the whole mass becomes filled with 
crystals of the new salt. Instead of KO, other 
bases are sometimes used, and an iron, soda, or 
chrome alum is formed. When heated, alum loses 
its water of crystallization, froths up, and becomes 
a porous mass, known as " burnt alum." Alum is 
soluble in 18 parts of cold water. It is much used 
in dyeing. It unites with the coloring matter, and 
binds it to the fibres of the cloth. It is therefore 
called a mordant (mordeo, to bite). 

Alum Crystals. — Beautiful octohedron crystals; 



• ' 



124 ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY. 

of alum are obtained by suspending threads in a 
saturated solution of this salt. In this manner alum- 
baskets, bouquets, etc., are made of any desired 
color. 

Spectrum Analysis. 

Many of the metals named as rare have been lately 
discovered by what is termed Spectrum Analysis. 
We have already noticed that various metals impart 
a peculiar color to flame ; thus the soda salts give a 
yellow tinge, copper a green, etc. If now we look 
at these colored flames through a prism, we shall find 
the " spectrum," or bands of rainbow-colors we are 
familiar with, strangely ornamented wdth bright- 
tinted lines. Thus the spectrum of sodium has one 
bright yellow line ; silver, two green lines ; caesium, 
a beautiful blue line. Each metal makes a distinc- 
tive spectrum, even when the flame is colored by 
several substances at once. This method of analysis 
is so delicate that y,T3T, oW.too- °f a gramme of so- 
dium, or the -g-o,ToV, ott °f a gramme of lithium, can 
be detected in the flame of an alcohol lamp. 

For the more perfect examination of the spectra, a 
" spectroscope" is used. This consists of a tube 
with a narrow slit at one end, which lets only a single 
ray of colored light fall upon the prism within, and 
at the other a small telescope, through which one 
can look in upon the prism and examine the spec- 
trum. 






IEON. 125 



THE HEAVY METALS. 

Iron. 

Symbol, Fe-. Equivalent, 28- -Specific Gravity, 7.8. 

Iron is the symbol of civilization. Its value in 
the arts can be measured only by the progress of 
the present age. In its adaptations and employ- 
ments it has kept pace with scientific discoveries and 
improvements, so that the usesjof iron may readily 
indicate the advancement of a nation. It is worth 
more to the world than all other metals combined. 
We could dispense with gold or silver, — they largely 
minister to luxury and refinement, while iron repre- 
sents only the honest industry of labor. Its use is 
universal, and it is fitted alike for massive iron 
cables, and for screws so tiny that they can be seen 
only by the microscope, appearing to the naked eye 
like grains of black sand. 

" Iron vessels cross the ocean, 
Iron engines give them motion, 
Iron needles northward veering, 
Iron tillers vessels steering, 
Iron pipes our gas delivers, 
Iron bridges span our rivers, 
Iron pens are used for writing, 
Iron ink our thoughts inditing, 
Iron stoves for cooking victuals, 
Iron ovens, pots, and kettles, 
Iron horses draw our loads, 
Iron rails compose our roads, 
Iron anchors hold in sands, 



126 ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY. 

Iron bolts and rods and bands, 

Iron houses, iron walls, 

Iron cannon, iron balls, 

Iron axes, knives, and chains, 

Iron augers, saws, and planes, 

Iron globules in our blood,* 

Iron particles in food, 

Iron lightning-rods on spires, 

Iron telegraphic wires, 

Iron hammers, nails, and screws, 

Iron everything we use. 11 

Its abundance everywhere indicates how indis- 
pensable the Creator deemed it to the education and 
development of man. There is no " Calif omia" of 
iron. Each nation has its own supply. No other 
material is so enhanced by labor. A bar of Fe, 
worth $5, becomes worth, when made into horse- 
shoes, $10 ; into needles, $55 ; penknives, $3,285 ; 
shirt -buttons, $29,480; and in watch-springs, 
$240,000, or more than its weight in gold. 

Oxyds of Ikon. — The most usual are : (1) Black or 
Magnetic Oxyd of Iron (Fe 3 4 ), as found in the 
loadstone, Swedish iron ore, scales which fly off in 
forging iron, and in the iron mountains of Missouri. 
It is also seen in the thin pellicles overstanding HO, 
producing a beautiful iridescent appearance, the color 
changing with the thickness of the oxyd : (2) The 
Red Oxyd of Iron — sesquioxyd — (Fe 2 3 ), as seen in 

* There is not probably enough iron in the blood of a full- 
grown person to make a ten-penny nail, yet it gives energy and 
life to the system. Iron is given in the form of a fine powder, or 
a citrate of iron, as a tonic, and is a powerful remedy. 



IKON. 



127 



bog-iron ore, in the beautiful radiated and fibrous 
specimens of brown and red hematite, in bricks and 
pottery-ware, and in common iron-rust. The sesqui- 
oxyd, when combined with HO, forms (3) hydrated 
sesquioxyd of iron (Fe 2 3 .HO), and has a yellow 
color, which is changed to red by heat, when the HO 
is expelled, as in burning of brick, etc. These oxyds 
give the yellow and black colors seen in clayey soils 
and on the surface of weather-beaten stones. The 
black gradually oxydizes into the yellow, and so a 
black stone forms a yellow sand or soil. 

Smelting of Iron Ores. — Iron is not found pure, 
but is locked up with O in an apparently useless 
stone. C is the key that is ready made and left for 
our use by the Creator. It only remains for us to 
apply it and turn the wards. 
The process adopted at the 
mines is very simple. A 
tall blast-furnace is con- 
structed of stone and lined 
with fire-brick. At the top 
is the door and at the bot- 
tom pipes for forcing in hot 
air, sometimes twelve thou- 
sand cubic feet per minute, 
by huge blowing-cylinders 
driven by steam-power. The 
furnace is filled with lime, 

. _ _ . . A Blast-Furnace. 

stone, coal, and iron ore, m 

alternate layers, and the fire ignited. The C unites with 




1 



128 ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY. 

the O of the ore, and goes off as C0 2 . The limestone 
forms, with the other impurities, silica, etc., a richly- 
colored glassy slag, which rises to the top. The melted 
iron runs to the bottom, and is drawn off into channels 
cut in the sand on the floor of the furnace. The 
large main one is called the sow, and the smaller 
lateral ones the pigs, and hence the term pig-iron. 

Properties. — Iron when pure is white. As com- 
monly seen it has a gray tint, and is susceptible of 
a high polish. It is malleable and ductile. It has 
been beaten into leaves so thin that it has been 
used for writing-paper — six hundred leaves being 
only half an inch in thickness — and has been drawn 
into wire as fine as a hair. By constant jarring it 
loses its perfect crystalline structure, becoming rot- 
ten and brittle, so that the axles of cars, cannon, 
etc., are condemned after a certain time, although 
no flaw may appear. It is an exception to the law 
that " cold contracts," since at the instant of solidi- 
fication it expands, so as to copy exactly every line 
of the mould in which it is cast. This fits it per- 
fectly for castings. Almost the entire value of iron 
in the arts depends upon this fact. Otherwise we 
could never hammer out enough tools and machinery 
to keep the world at work. Was it chance or design 
that contrived all this nice planning so long even 
before man was made ? 

Varieties of Fe. — The usual forms of iron are cast, 
wrought, and steel. These depend upon the quantity 
of C they contain. A cwt. of cast-iron has about 



IKON. 



129 



5 lbs. of C, a cwt. of wrought about £ lb., and 
steel is between them in varying quantities. 

Cast Fe is the form in which it comes from the fur- 
nace. It is brittle, cannot be welded, and is neither 
malleable nor ductile, but is adapted for castings. 

Wrought or Malleable Fe is made by burning out 
the C from cast-iron, in a current of highly-heated 
air, in what is called a re- 
verberatory furnace. The 
Fe is stirred up constantly, 
and exposed to the hot 
air by means of " long pud- 
dling-sticks," as they are 
termed, and then taken out 
and beaten under a trip- 
hammer to force out all the slag, and bring the par- 
ticles of Fe nearer each other. It now takes on a 
fibrous structure, and can be welded, is malleable 
and ductile. It is hardened by being cooled rapidly, 
and softened by cooling slowly. The blacksmith 
tempers his work by plunging the article in cold HO. 

Steel contains less C than cast and more than 
wrought iron. It is therefore made from the former 
by taking out a part of the C, or from the latter by 
heating it in boxes of charcoal, and so adding C* 
The value of steel depends largely upon the temper- 




A Reverberatory Furnace. 



* By what is now known extensively as "Bessemer's process 
of making steel " it is formed from pig-iron without the use of 
fuel. A current of hot air is carried up through the liquid iron, 
which burns out the carbon, and in its combustion produces heat 

6* 



130 ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY. 

ing quality it possesses. As tlie metal cools, tlie 
film of oxyd on the surface gradually thickens, and 
so deepens in color. By watching this the workmen 
know when the exact degree of hardness is reached. 
Knives require an orange, chisels a crimson, springs 
and swords a blue tint. Cheap knives made of cast- 
iron are often covered with a superficial coating of 
steel. They are simply heated with charcoal a little 
time, so that the outside only becomes steelified, as 
it were. When we use such knives, we soon wear 
through this crust, and find cast-iron beneath, which 
will take no edge. 

Galvanized Fe. — This is formed by dipping sheets 
of iron in melted zinc, a thin layer of which adheres 
to the iron and prevents oxydation. 

BisULPHURET of Fe (Fe S 2 ), iron pyrites— fooV s gold ; 
so called, because it is often mistaken by ignorant 
people for gold. It occurs in cubical crystals and 
bright shiny scales. It can be easily tested by roast- 
ing it on a hot shovel, when we will catch the well- 
known odor of the S. 

Sulphate of Fe (FeO . S0 3 + 7HO) — green vitriol, 
copperas, made at Stafford, Connecticut, from FeS 2 , 
by exposure to air and moisture. It is formed in the 

enough to continue the operation. When the iron is entirely 
decarbonized, enough iron, rich in carbon, called " spiegeleisen," 
or " looking-glass iron," is added to transform it into steel. At the 
conclusion, in less than twenty minutes commonly, the entire mass 
of tons weight is run out and cast into bars of the very best steel. 
This method has" revolutionized the""old~modes of manufacture. 



ZINC. 



131 



same maimer in the decay of rocks, containing iron 
pyrites, and is found in the soil. Used in dyeing, 
making ink, and in photography. 



t 



Fusing Point, 470° F. 



Zinc, 

Symb. Zn- .-Equiv. 32.5.-Spec. Gray. 7 

Source.— Zinc, or " spelter" as it is called in com- 
merce, is found in ZnO, or red oxyd, in New Jersey, 
and as ZnS, or zinc blende, at many places. 

Preparation. — ZnO is purified on the same prin- 
ciple as iron ore, by heating the 
powdered ore with 0. The re- 
action is as follows : 

ZnO +0 



Zn + CO 

Both these products distil as 
a vapor, and the Zn is condensed 
while CO escapes. 




Roasting Zinc Ore. 



Properties. — Ordinary Zn is brittle, but singularly 
enough, when heated to 200° or 300° F., it becomes 
malleable, and is rolled out into the sheet Zn in use 
so commonly. It burns in the air with a magnificent 
green light, forming great flakes of ZnO, sometimes 
called " Philosopher's Wool." Example : On a red- 
hot ladle sprinkle some powdered saltpetre and Zn 
filings. The KO.N0 5 will furnish O, and the metal 
will burn with great brilliancy. When exposed to 



132 



ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY. 



the air, Zn soon oxydizes, and the thin film of white 
oxyd, formed over its surface, protects it from further 
change. 

Uses. — It has many economic uses, known to all. 
The oxyd, ZnO, is sold as zinc-white, and is much 
valued as a paint, since it is not deleterious to the 
painters, and does not blacken by HS like white- 
lead. The sulphate, ZnO . S0 3 (white vitriol), is a 
powerful emetic. 



\ 



Tin. 

Symb. Sn -.Equiv. 56- .Spec. Grav. 7.2-. -Fusing Point, 420° F. 

Sn is found mainly in Cornwall, England, in 
Jackson, New Hampshire, in slight quantities, and 
in Missouri. It is not ductile, but is very malleable, 
so that tinfoil is not more than lo 1 o0 of an inch in 
thickness. When quickly bent, it utters a shrill 
sound, called the " tin cry," caused by the crystals 
moving upon each other. The tendency of Sn to 
crystallize is remarkable. Example: Heat a piece 
of Sn till the coating begins to melt; then cool 
quickly and clean it in aqua-regia. The surface will 
be found to be covered with beautiful crystals of 
the metal. Ordinary tin-w r are is formed by dipping 
sheet-iron in melted Sn, which produces an artificial 
coating of the latter metal. If we leave HO in a tin 
dish long, the yellow spots betray the presence of 
Fe. Tin does not oxydize at ordinary temperatures. 
Sn0 2 , sold as putty powder, $nd used for white 



COPPER. 133 

enamel and for polishing glass, is formed by the 
action of N0 5 on Sn. Example : Pour a little dilute 
N0 5 on scraps of tin, and watch the evolution of 
nitrous acid fumes, and the formation of Sn0 2 . 
SnS 2 is the ordinary mosaic gold used in printing 
the bronze letters and figures on handbills and 
wall-paper. Pins are made of brass wire, and then 
boiled with tin and cream of tartar. This gives 
a bright white surface to the metal. The pins are 
stuck in papers, as we sea them, by machinery 
which picks them up out of a miscellaneous pile, 
counts them, and inserts them in the paper, com- 
plete for the market. The first part of the process 
is performed by a sort of coarse comb, which is 
thrust into the heap, and gathers up a pin in each 
of the spaces between the teeth. 

Copper. 

Symb. Cu- -Equiv. 31.7 ..Spec. Grav. 8.9 .Fusing Pt. 1996° F. 

Sources. — Found native near Lake Superior, fre- 
quently in masses of great size. In these mines are 
discovered stone hammers, the tools of a people 
more ancient than the Indians, who probably occu- 
pied this continent, and worked the mines. In the 
Western mounds copper instruments are found. 
Malachite, CuO . C0 2 , is the best known ore of copper. 
It is found in Siberia, and is worked into beautiful 
ornaments, much prized by the Eussian nobles. 

Propertie*s.'<--lt is ductile, malleable, and a oon- 



134 ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY. 

ductor of electricity. Its vapor gives a characteristic 
and beautiful green color to flame. It is hardened 
by hammering, and softened by heating and plung- 
ing into cold HO, — just the reverse of iron, which 
fact spoils all our good theories as to the cause in 
either case. In a damp atmosphere, the C0 2 unites 
with it, forming CuO.C0 2 , familiarly but improperly 
called verdigris. The true verdigris is acetate of CuO, 
and is produced when we soak pickles in brass or cop- 
per kettles ; the green color which results is simply this 
salt — a deadly poison. Preserved fruits, etc., should 
never stand in such vessels, as the vegetable acids 
dissolve Cu readily. The black coating which col- 
lects on copper or brass kettles is the black oxyd of 
copper, CuO, and very poisonous. It dissolves readily 
in fats and oils. Such utensils should therefore be 
used only when perfectly bright, and then never with 
any fruits, sweetmeats, jellies, pickles, etc. Its sol- 
vent is N0 5 . Its test is NH 3 , forming in a solu- 
tion a pale blue precipitate, which dissolves in an 
excess of the reagent. 

Sulphate of Copper (CuO.S0 3 + 5B.O)— blue 
vitriol — is much used in dyeing, calico printing, and 
galvanic batteries. / 



Lead. 

Sym., Pb .. Equiv., 103.6 ...Spec. Cr. f 11.44 ..-Fusing Pt.,6l2°F. 

Sources.—- It is found almost pure in cubical crys- 
tals, but its most/common ore is galerj& ; ; % sulphuret 



4 



LEAD. 135 

(PbS), which is reduced by roasting in a reverbera- 
tory furnace. The S burns and leaves the metal. 

Properties. — It is malleable, but contracts as it 
solidifies, so it cannot be used for castings. It is poi- 
sonous, though not immediately, as bullets have been 
swallowed, and then thrown off without any harm 
except the fright. Its effects seem to accumulate in 
the system, and finally to manifest themselves in 
some disease. Persons who use lead, as painters 
and plumbers, after a time suffer with colics, paraly- 
sis, etc. It is much used for water-pipes, and is the 
most convenient of any metal for that purpose. 
Pure water passing through the pipe will not corrode 
the lead, but the O of the air it contains forms an 
oxyd of lead which dissolves in the HO. If there 
are any sulphates or carbonates in the HO, these 
will form a coating over the lead, and protect it from 
further corrosion; and as carbonate of lime is com- 
mon in all hard water, that is safe. If, when we ex- 
amine a lead pipe that is in constant use, we find it 
covered with a white film, that is a good sign ; but 
if it is bright, there is cause for alarm. Still, how- 
ever much may be said upon the danger, people will 
use lead pipes, and the following precautions should 
be observed : Always let the water run long enough in 
the morning before using, to remove all which has re- 
mained in the water-pipes during tJie night, and after 
the HO has been drawn off for awhile, when it is let 
on again, leave the faucet open until the pipe is thor- 
oughly waslwd. 




136 ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY. 

Oxyd or Lead (PbO) is the well-known litharge, 
and is used in glass-making, in paints, and in glaz- 
ing earthenware, as we have elsewhere described. 

Minium, or red-had (Pb 3 4 ), is used for coloring 
sealing-wax red, and as a paint. 

Carbonate of Lead (PbO.C0 2 ). — White-Lead. — 
This salt is made in large quantities in the following 
manner. Thousands of earthen pots fitted with 
covers are filled with weak vinegar (acetic 
acid) and a small roll of lead, arranged in 
immense piles, and then covered with tan- 
bark. The acetic acid combines with the 
lead, but the C0 2 formed by the decom- 

A — An earthen m # 

p l!a coil of lead, posmg tan-bark creeps m under the cover, 

V — A solution of -i • • /vji i* • t t p • 

vinegar. driving on the acetic acid, and forming 

carbonate of lead. The acetic acid, thus dispossessed, 
attacks another portion of the lead, but is robbed 
again ; and so the process goes on, until at last all the 
lead is exhausted. White-lead is largely adulterated 
with sulphate of baryta — heavy spar. This can be 
easily detected by digesting (gently heating) a little 
in N0 5 , or even in strong vinegar, which will form a 
soluble nitrate or acetate of all the lead in the 
paint, while the baryta will settle to the bottom as 
a white precipitate. 

Acetate of Lead (PbO.A) — Sugar of Lead. — This 
salt has a sweet, pleasant taste, and has been fre- 
quently taken by mistake, owing to its being in such 
common use. It is a virulent poison. The antidote 
is Epsom salts, which forms an insoluble sulphate 




ARSENIC. 137 

of lead. Water dissolves it readily. Ex. : 
If a piece of zinc, cut in small strips, be 
suspended in a bottle filled with a solution 
of this salt, the lead will be deposited upon 
it by voltaic action in beautiful metallic 
spangles, forming the "lead-tree." The Lead-tree. 

Test of Pb. — This is HS, which forms with the 
metal the black sulphuret of lead (PbS). A very 
comical illustration is as follows : Thicken a solution 
of PbO.A with a little gum-arabic, so as not to flow 
too readily from the pen, and then make the funniest 
drawing of which you can conceive. This, when 
dry, will be invisible. When it is to be used dampen 
the paper slightly on the wrong side, and then direct 
against it a jet of HS, and the picture will blacken 
into beauty. 

Arsenic. 

Symbol, As- -Equivalent, 75- •••Specific Gravity, 5.8. 
Volatilizes without fusion at 356° F. 

This is a brittle, steel-gray metal, commonly sold 
when impure as Cobalt If heated in the open air 
it gives off the odor of garlic, which is a test of As. 

Arsenious Acid (AsO s ). — This is the well-known 
"ratsbane" and is sometimes sold as simply 
" arsenic." 

Preparation. — It is made in Silesia, by roasting 
arsenical iron ore at the bottom of a tower, above 
which is a series of rooms through which the vapors 



138 ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY. 

ascend, and pass out through a chimney at the top. 
The As bums, forming As0 3 , which collects as a 
white powder on the walls and floors of the cham- 
bers above. Its removal is a work of great danger. 
The workmen are entirely enveloped in a leathern 
dress and mask with glass eyes ; they breathe through 
a moistened sponge, thus filtering the air of the fine 
particles of arsenic floating through it. Yet, in spite 
of all these precautions, the workmen rarely live 
beyond forty. 

Properties.— Arsenious acid (arsenic) is soluble in 
hot HO, and has a slightly sweetish taste. It is a 
powerful poison, doses of two or three grains being 
fatal, although an over-dose acts as an emetic. It 
is an antiseptic, and so in cases of poisoning fre- 
quently attracts attention by the perfect preservation 
of the body, even twenty or thirty years after the 
murder has been committed. The antidote is milk, 
whites of eggs, or s as ds (t 1 e lat < r being good in 
almost any case of poisoning), taken immediately. The 
exact chemical antidote is the hydrated sequioxyd 
of iron, prepared by addi lg an s lkali to a solution 
of copperas (FeO . S0 3 ). The bulky precipitate soon 
reddens by the absorption of O from the air, and 
becomes the sesquioxyd. It must be perfectly fresh 
and moist to be of any value. 

Marsh's Test. — There is no other poison which is 
so easily detected. Prepare a flask for the evolution 
of H. Ignite the jet of gas, and hold in the flame 
a cold porcelain dish. If the matarials contain no 



ARSENIC. 



139 



As, it will remain untarnished. Now pour in through 
the funnel-tube a few drops of a solution of As 
(made by dissolving a little As0 3 in HC1), and the 
color of the flame will be seen to change almost in- 
stantly, and a copious "metallic mirror" of As will 
be deposited on the dish. The gas formed in this 
experiment — arsenuretted hydrogen — is very poison- 
ous indeed, and the utmost care should be used to 
prevent its inhalation. In a case of poisoning, of 




Marsh's Test. 

course, the contents of the stomach would be substi- 
tuted for the solution of As, and many other tests 
besides this would be employed. We can imagine 
with what care a chemist would conduct this test, 
and with what intense anxiety he would watch tha 
porcelain dish as the flame played upon it, hesitating, 
and dreading the issue, as he felt the life of a fellow- 
being trembling on the result of his experiment. 
Arsenic-eating. — It is said that the peasants in 



140 ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY. 

portions of Hungary are accustomed to eat As, both 
fasting and as a seasoning to their food. A very- 
minute portion will warm and stimulate and aid in 
climbing lofty mountains. The arsenic-eaters are 
described as plump and rosy, and it is said that the 
young people resort to it as a species of cosmetic to 
make them more attractive. They begin with small 
doses, which are gradually increased ; but if the 
person should cease the practice at any time, all the 
symptoms of arsenic poisoning immediately appear. 
Horse-jockeys are said to feed arsenic to their 
horses to improve their flesh and speed. 

Chromium. 

Symbol, Cr. 

This element is commonly known as combined 
with in chromic acid, Cr0 3 . The ruby owes its 
beautiful red to this acid. Bichromate of potassa, 
KO . 2Cr0 3 , is a red salt, much used in the laboratory, 
dyeing, etc. Example : If we mix a solution of this 
salt and one of sugar of lead, a yellow-colored pre- 
cipitate will be formed, known as chrome yellow 
(PbO.Cr0 3 ), valued in painting and dyeing. Ex.: 
Moisten a piece of flannel in a solution of sugar of 
lead (PbO. A), then in one of Glauber's Salts (NaO. 
S0 3 ), to change the acetate of lead to a sulphate of 
lead, and lastly, in one of bichromate of potash, 
when the cloth will be found to be dyed a per- 
manent yellow. 



MERCURY. 141 



THE NOBLE METALS. 

These are : Mercury, Silver, Gold, Platinum, 
Palladium, Iridium, Osmium, Ruthenium, Rhodium. 

Mercury. 

Symbol, Hg- -Equivalent, 100- -Specific Gravity, 13.5. 
Freezes at -39° F-..- Boils at 662° F. 

Mercury is also called quicksilver, because it runs 
about as if it were alive, and was supposed by the 
alchemists to contain silver. It was known very 
anciently, and the mines of Spain were worked by 
the Romans. 

Source. — Cinnabar, HgS, a brilliant red ore, called 
also "vermilion," is the principal source of this 
metal. It is found native in Mexico in very small 
quantities, where the mines are said to have been 
discovered by a slave, who, in climbing a mountain, 
came to a very steep ascent. To aid him in sm> 
mounting this, he tried to draw himself up by a bush 
which grew in a crevice above. The shrub, however, 
giving way, was torn up by the roots, and a tiny 
stream, of what to him seemed liquid silver, trickled 
down upon him. 

Properties. — Mercury emits a vapor at all temper- 
atures above 40° F. Its solvent is N0 5 . It is the 
only element, except bromine, that is fluid at ordi- 
nary temperatures. It forms an amalgam — a union 



142 ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY. 

of Hg and a metal — viz., gold or silver. We should 
therefore never touch a gold ring, for instance, to 
Hg, as it will cover it immediately with a thin film 
of this amalgam. 

Uses. — Hg is extensively employed in the manufac- 
ture of thermometers, barometers, for silvering mir- 
rors, and extracting the precious metals from their 
ores. The well-known blue-pill is Hg incorporated 
with chalk and flavored with liquorice. Mercurial 
ointment, " anguintum," is Hg and lard well rubbed 
together. This is chiefly employed as an unguent 
for domestic use, and in very populous schools. Hg 
is extensively employed in medicine, as calomel, 
Hg 2 . CI, a subchloride of mercury. This can be dis- 
tinguished from any other substance for which it is 
liable to be mistaken, especially corrosive sublimate, 
from the fact that it is insoluble in HO, and perfectly 
tasteless. The action of Hg on the human system 
is too well known to need description. " In its me- 
tallic state, Hg has been taken with impunity in 
quantities of a pound weight" (Am. Cyc.), but when 
finely divided, as in vapor or "blue-pill," its effects 
are marked. It renders the patient extremely sus- 
ceptible to colds, acts directly upon the liver, in- 
creasing the secretion of bile, and in over-doses 
produces " salivation." 

Red Oxyd of Hg, "red precipitate," is interesting, 
as the substance from which Priestley discovered 
O gas. 

Chloride of Hg (Hg.Cl), " corrosive sublimate," is 



MERCURY. 143 

well known to housekeepers. It is a heavy, white 
solid, soluble in HO, and with a burning metallic 
taste. It has powerful antiseptic properties, and is 
used to preserve specimens in natural history. It is 
a deadly poison, and its antidote is white of eggs, 
milk, etc. 

Mirrors were anciently made of steel or silver, 
highly polished. ' They were very liable to rust and 
tarnish, and so a piece of sponge, sprinkled with pum- 
ice-stone, was suspended from the handle for rubbing 
the mirror before use. Seneca, in lamenting over 
the extravagance of his day among the old Romans, 
says : " Every young woman now-a-days must have 
a silver mirror." The process of silvering ordinary 
mirrors is as follows. Tinfoil is first spread evenly 
over the glass, and then the Hg is carefully poured 
over it. The two metals combine, forming a bright 
amalgam, which clings to the glass. The superfluous 
Hg is cautiously wiped or pressed off. When we 
look into a mirror we rarely realize what it has 
cost others to thus minister to our comfort. The 
workmen are short-lived. A paralysis sometimes 
attacks them within a few weeks after they enter the 
manufactory, and it is thought remarkable if a man 
escapes for a year or two. Its effects are similar to 
those we have just spoken of when treating of calo- 
mel ; the patient dances instead of walks, he cannot 
direct the motion of his arms, nor in some cases 
even masticate his food. 



144 ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY. 



Iridium. 

Symbol, lr. •• Equivalent, 99 ••••Specific Gravity, 21.15. 

This metal is named from Iris, the rainbow, be- 
cause of the beautiful color of its salts in solution. 
It is the heaviest of the elements, being over 21 times 
as heavy as water. When combined with Osmium, it 
makes " irodosmine, ,, well known as the points of 
gold pens. 

Platinum. 

Symbol, Pt .-•• Equivalent, 986 .... Specific Gravity, 21.5 
Fusing Point, 4591° F. 

Source. — Platinum is chiefly found in the Ural 
Mountains, where it occurs in alluvial deposits, in 
small, flattened grains. 

Properties. — It resembles Ag in its appearance. 
It is the most ductile metal known, wire having been 
made from it so fine as to be invisible to the naked 
eye.* It is soluble in aqua-regia, but not in the 
simple acids. It does not oxydize in the air, is the 
most infusible of substances, and can be melted only 

* Wollaston's Method, as it is called, consists in covering fine 
platinum wire with severaj times its weight of silver, and then 
drawing this through the plates used for drawing wire until the 
finest hole is reached, when the wire is placed in N0 6 , which dis- 
solves the Ag and leaves the Pt intact. This, in the form of the 
finest wire known, may be found in the solution by means of a 
microscope. A single ounce of Pt, it is said, will make a wire 
that would reach from New York to New Orleans. 



GOLD. 145 

by the heat of the compound blow-pipe or voltaic 
battery. In the arts it is fused in the former man- 
ner. These properties fit it for use as crucibles in 
the laboratory, and for this purpose it is invaluable 
to the chemist. 

Gold. 

Symbol, Au • • . . Equivalent, 196.4 . ... Specific Gravity, 19.34, 
Fusing Point, 2016° F. 

Sources. — Gold is widely diffused. It occurs some- 
times in cubes, in masses called nuggets, and is 
always native. It is found generally in small grains, 
or scales, scattered through the rocks. As these 
disintegrate by the action of the elements, the gold 
is gradually washed into the valleys below, and 
thence into the streams and rivers, where, owing to 
its specific gravity, it settles and collects in the mud 
and gravel of their beds. In this way we trace the 
origin of the extensive gold-plains of California. 

Preparation. — As the metal is thus found native, 
the process is purely mechanical, and consists simply 
in washing out the dirt and gravel in wash-pans, 
rockers, etc., at the bottom of which the metal ac- 
cumulates, the only requisites being these tools and 
an abundance of water. In the quartz-mills the rock 
is thrown into great troughs of water, in which, by 
heavy stamps, the ore is crushed to powder. As the 
thin liquid mud thus formed splashes up on either 
side, or is conducted from the stamping-mill, it runs 

7 



146 ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY. 

over broad metallic tables covered with mercury. 
This unites with the little particles of gold as they 
are washed along, and forms with them an amalgam 
(a compound of mercury and a metal). From this 
the gold is easily separated by distillation, and the 
mercury collected to be used- again. 

Quartatton. — Gold is sometimes alloyed wdth sil- 
ver. In that case the silver is dissolved out by N0 5 . 
There must be three parts of silver to one of gold, 
else the gold will protect all the silver from the 
action of the acid. If there is not so much, some 
is added. 

Properties. — Pure ore is nearly as soft as lead. It 
is extremely malleable and ductile. Its solvent is 
aqua-regia. It does not oxydize at any temperature. 

Gold-Leaf. — The process of making gold-leaf is 
very simple. The metal is first rolled into thin rib- 
bon, and then divided into pieces one inch square. 
These are placed, one by one, between leaves of 
gold-beaters' skin and hammered until they are 
beaten four inches square, when they are subdivided 
into four pieces, each one inch square. These are 
hammered as before, and the process repeated until 
the required thinness is obtained. 

S..i.V£R. 

Symb., Ag.-Equiv., 108- .Spec. Gr., 10.5... Fusing Pt, 1873* F, 

Sources. — Silver is found throughout tie great 
West in a distracting variety of forms — most ccm- 



SILVER. 147 

monly, however, combined with S, as black sulphur et, 
AgS ; with CI, forming horn-silver, ' AgCl ; with As, 
making ruby-silver, AgAs, and also associated with 
lead in ordinary galena. 

Preparation. — 1st. The sulphur et is refined as fol- 
lows. The ore is crushed into fine powder and then 
roasted with common salt. The CI of the salt unites 
with the Ag, forming chloride of silver, AgCl. This 
is now put into a revolving cylinder with HO, Hg, 
and iron-scraps. The iron takes the CI away from 
the silver, and the Hg catches it up, thus forming 
an amalgam of Hg and Ag. From this the silver is 
easily obtained, as in gold-washing. 2d. From 
horn-silver , AgCl, the process is like the latter part 
of that we have just described. 3d. From lead the 
silver can be profitably obtained even when there is 
not more than ten ounces in a ton. The alloy of the 
two metals is melted and then slowly cooled. Lead 
solidifies much sooner than silver, and by skimming 
out the crystals of Pb as fast as formed, they may 
be almost entirely separated. 

Cupellation. — A cupel is a shallow vessel, made of 
bone-ashes. In this the silver, debased with lead 
and other impurities, is placed and 
exposed to a red heat, so as to melt 
the metals, while a current of hot air 
plays upon the surface. The lead A Cu p c1 - 
oxydizes, is changed to litharge, PbO, and is ab- 
sorbed by the porous cupel. The mass appears 
soiled and tarnished, but the refiner keeps his eye 




us 



ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY. 



upon it as the process continues, watching eagerly, 
until at last there is a brilliant play of colors — he 
catches his own image in the perfect metallic mirror, 
and the little " button" of pure silver lies gleaming 
at the bottom.* This must now be immediately re- 
moved, or it will oxydize and waste. 




Cupels in Furnace. 



Properties.— Silver is the whitest of all the metals. 
It is malleable and ductile. It expands at the mo- 
ment it solidifies, and, therefore, can be cast. It 
has a powerful attraction for sulphur, forming the 
black sulphuret of silver. The perspiration from 
our bodies contains more or less S, and this, as it 

* Malachi, iil 3. 



SILVER. 149 

passes through our pockets, fraternizes with any sil- 
ver we may chance to have there. Silver spoons 
and door-knobs are tarnished by the minute quan- 
tity of HS present in the air. Those who have 
visited any sulphur springs know the propriety of 
carefully protecting their gold or silver watches, and 
of never carrying them to the hot baths. AgS is 
very easily dissolved by a little dilute ammonia (1 
part of NH 3 to 10 of HO), which is therefore used 
for cleaning silver door-knobs. The solvent of Ag 
is N0 5 . The test of silver in solution is HC1, which 
forms a cloudy precipitate of chloride of silver, AgCl. 
A solution of silver coin is blue, from the copper it 
contains. 

Nitrate of Silver (AgO.N0 5 ). — It is sold in crys- 
tals, and also in sticks as lunar caustic. It . is used 
as a cautery. It stains the skin and all organic mat- 
ter black, owing to its decomposition by the light 
and the formation of oxyd of silver, AgO. A very 
pretty experiment, illustrating this, is performed by 
dropping into a test-tube of HO a few drops of 
nitrate of silver in solution, and then adding KO : 
a copious precipitate of AgO will fill the tube. At 
last add a little NH 3 , and it will instantly dissolve 
the black oxyd, and leave the solution as clear and 
sparkling as spring-water. The stain from nitrate 
of silver may be removed by a solution of cyanide 
of potassium. Hair-dyes and indelible inks consist 
mainly of this salt of silver. 



150 ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY. 



The Alloys. 

These are very numerous, and many of them 
possess properties so different from their elements 
that they almost seem like new metals. Their color 
and hardness are changed, and sometimes the melt- 
ing point is below that of any one of the con- 
stituents. 

Type Metal contains 3 parts lead to 1 of antimony. 

Britannia consists of 100 parts tin, 8 antimony, 
2 bismuth, and 2 of copper. 

Brass is 4 parts of copper and 3 of zinc. 

German Silver contains copper, zinc, and nickel — 
(brass whitened by nickel). 

Soft Solder, used by tinsmiths, is made by melting 
lead and tin together, the orthodox proportion — half 
and half. Before putting on the solder, they moisten 
the surface of the metal with HC1, which dissolves 
the coating of the oxyd. 

Hard Solder is composed of copper and zinc. 

Fusible Metal melts at 203°, and spoons made of it 
will fuse in hot tea. It can be melted in a paper 
crucible over a candle. It consists of bismuth, lead, 
and tin. Yet the first metal melts at 476°, the second 
at 600°, and the third at 442°. 

Bronze is 90 parts copper and 10 of tin. 

Gold is soldered with an alloy of itself and silver ; 
Silver, with itself and copper ; Copper, with itself and 
zinc : the principle being that the metal of lower 
fusing point causes the other to melt more easily. 



THE ALLOYS. 151 

Coin. — The precious metals, when pure, are too 
soft for common use. They are therefore hardened 
by other metals. Gold coin consists of 9 parts gold 
and 1 of alloy. The alloy is composed of 9 parts of 
copper, whitened by one of silver, so as not to darken 
the gold coin. Silver coin is 9 parts silver and 1 of 
copper. The nickel cent is 88 parts copper and 12 
of nickel. The object of the copper is to make the 
coin larger, as it is cheaper than nickel. The term 
carat, applied to the precious metals, means ^ part. 
Therefore, gold 18 carats fine, contains ^f of gold 
and 2 6 4 of alloy. 

Shot is an alloy of about 1 part arsenic to 100 of 
lead. The manufacture is carried on in what are 
called " shot-towers," some of which are two hundred 
and fifty feet high. The alloy is melted at the top 
of the building, and poured through colanders. 
The metal, in falling so far, breaks up into drops, 
which take the " spheroidal form," harden, and are 
caught at the bottom in a well of water, which cools 
the shot and also prevents their being bruised in 
striking. The shot are dipped out, dried, and then 
assorted, by sifting in a revolving cylinder, which is 
set slightly inclined and is perforated with holes, in- 
creasing in size from the top to the bottom. The 
shot being poured in at the top, the small ones drop 
through first, next the larger, and so on, till the 
largest reach the very bottom. Each size is received 
in its own box. Shot are polished by being agi- 
tated for several hours with black-lead, in a rapidly 



152 ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY. 

revolving wheel. The shot are finally tested by 
rolling them all down a series of inclined planes 
placed at a little distance from each other. The 
spherical shot will jump from one plane to the next, 
while the imperfect ones will fall short, and drop 
below ; or sometimes, by rolling down a single in- 
clined plane, the spherical ones will go to the bot- 
tom, while the imperfect ones roll off at the sides. 

Oreide — a beautiful alloy, resembling gold — is 
made at Waterbury, Connecticut. It is a French 
discovery. It consists of 100 parts copper, tin 17 
parts, magnesia 6 parts, sal-ammoniac 3.6 parts, lime 
1.8 parts, cream of tartar 9 parts. It can be beaten 
into leaves, cast, chased, rolled, and stamped like 
gold, while none but the most experienced judges can 
detect the difference. 

Aluminum alloys with copper are becoming valu- 
able, as Al is itself better known. They are elastic, 
malleable, and very light. 



a ; ; - 



ORGANIC CHEMISTRY, 



INTRODUCTION. 

We have thus far spoken of the various elements 
of matter. We have found " dead, mineral matter," 
as we commonly call it, all alive with desire and 
power. Each tiny atom has revealed to us a force 
that repelled it here, attracted it there, and held 
it to its place as with bands of iron. We have 
traced, through all the varied changes of matter, the 
workings of one law and one system, and have every- 
where discovered our comfort and happiness to be 
the final end of creation. We have found the nicest 
cutting and planning, whereby each element appears 
fitted to its place in nature, as a skilful mechanic 
adapts one cog to another through a great series of 
machinery. No particle of matter seems left to 
itself, but, watched by the Eternal Eye and guided 
by the Eternal Hand, obeys immutable law. When 
Christ declared the very hairs of our head to be 
numbered, he intimated a chemical truth, which we 
can now know in full to be, that the very atoms of 



154: ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY. 

which each hair is composed are all numbered by 
that same watchful Providence. 

We have found the elements of the growth of our 
bodies, but still we cannot live upon them. We need 
phosphorus, but we cannot eat it ; it would burn 
us to a coal. We need iron, but it would make a 
most unsavory diet. We need lime, but it would 
corrode our flesh. We need H, but it must be com- 
bined with O as HO to be of any value to us. If 
we were shut up in a room with all the elements of 
nature, we not only could not combine them so as to 
produce any of those organic substances necessary 
to our life and comfort, but we would actually die 
of starvation. We thus see that the mineral matter 
must be assimilated in some manner before we can 
use it to advantage. Here appears the object of 
the vegetable world. It turns inorganic matter into 
organic. The plant taking those elements which we 
need for our growth and for use in the arts and 
sciences, combines them into plant products, such as 
wood, starch, sugar, coal, etc. : we using these, live, 
grow, and develop into civilized man, fitted for all 
the grand achievements of life. 

How strange it is that we are thus dependent upon 
plants! We know they decompose the poisonous 
C0 2 , and give us our supply of the inspiring O, but 
that is only a part of our demands ; they furnish us 
with all the grand staples of commerce, of luxury — 
all we eat, or drink, or wear. Each tiny leaf we see, 
each spire of grass is thus incessantly- working 



INTRODUCTION. ... 155 

throughout the livelong day to meet our constant 
wants. 

The object of Organic Chemistry is to treat of 
these plant-products and the various substances de- 
rived from them. Organic bodies differ from inor- 
ganic in several points. 

1st. While inorganic bodies deal with 65 elements, 
organic are composed principally of only four, C, H, 
0, N — which are therefore called " Organogens" — 
and a very little mineral matter constituting the 
ash. 

2d. While inorganic bodies consist of only a few 
atoms, and are therefore very simple in their con- 
struction (Ex.: HO, C0 2 , KO), organic contain a 
large number, and are extremely complex. Ex.: 
Sugar— Ci 2 H 12 12 ; Oil of cedar == C 32 H 36 2 ; Fibrine = 

^400-"-3io ™ soOi^i: b. 

3d. While inorganic bodies are formed and remain 
fixed in one state under the influence of chemical 
affinity, organic grow rapidly, change constantly, and 
when fife ceases, as rapidly decay, and are trans- 
formed into inorganic substances. 

4th. Owing to their complex structure, and the 
presence in very many of the negative N, they form 
most unstable compounds. In this we see the reason 
of their rapid decay. The vital principle alone holds 
them together, frequently in opposition to the laws 
of chemical affinity ; and the instant that is removed, 
the tendency is to seek new affinities and form new 
compounds. 

7* 



15G ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY. 

Number of Organic Bodies. — This is almost end- 
less, and yet is constantly increasing. The labor of 
modern chemists is largely devoted to this subject, 
and the field opens and broadens with every dis- 
covery. The methods of classification are unsettled, 
and new and conflicting theories yet contend on this 
border-ground of chemical knowledge. Various or- 
ganic bodies are now formed artificially by thfe skill 
of the chemist, and many others are broken up into 
simpler forms. Ex. : Alcohol == water and carburet- 
ted hydrogen. 

Isomerism. — Isomeric compounds are those that 
consist of the same elements in the same proportion. 
Ex. : Heavy carburetted hydrogen, petroleum, oil of 
roses, and caoutchouc, consist alike of C 4 H 4 . So 
that the fragrant odor of a rose, and that which 
comes from a petroleum lamp, contain precisely the 
same elements. Isomerism is supposed to be caused 
by a different grouping of the atoms about each 
other, as the same pieces upon a checker-board may 
be differently arranged. 

Allotropism. — Not only may the same elements be 
thus differently grouped, and produce different com- 
pounds, as p-l-e-a may spell also 1-e-a-p, or p-e-a-1, 
or p-a-l-e, but also the individual elements are sus- 
ceptible of allotropic states ; as, for instance, the C 
in a compound may be in any one of its three allo- 
tropic forms. These two principles of isomerism 
and allotropism run through organic chemistry, and 



STARCH. 



157 



readily account for the inexhaustible variety of its 
compounds.* 

Starch (C 12 H 10 O 10 ). 

Source. — Plants accumulate it in their roots — Ex., 
Carrot, turnip : in subterranean stems — Ex., Pota- 
toes, of which it forms 20 per cent. : in the base of 
leaves — Ex., Onion: in the seed — Ex., Corn, of 
which it forms 80 per cent : in the embryo — Ex., 
Bean, pea. In all these it is stored up for the future 
growth of the plant 
or the seed. It is kept 
in its starch form 
(lest it dissolve in 
the first rain), and 
then turned to sugar 
only when and as the 
plant needs it in 
growing. The ac- 
companying figures 
show the form of the 
fra'n of starch in a starch Grain. 

potato, as seen under the microscope, each veg tab' 3 
having its peculiar shape, so that in this way any 
adulteration is easily detected. 

Preparation. — It is made from wheat, corn, pota- 
toes. The process is essentially the same in all. 
The potato, for example, is ground to a pulp, and 




See Organic Chemistry, in Appendix. 



158 ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY. 

then washed with cold water. The starch settles 
from this milky mass as a fine white precipitate. 





Properties.— It is insoluble in cold water. If 
heated it absorbs water, swells, and the starch 
granules burst, forming a jelly-like liquid, used for 
what is known as starching. The swelling of rice, 
beans, etc., when cooked, is owing to this property. 
By heat, starch undergoes a peculiar change into a 
substance known as dextrine, or British gum, used 
for making envelopes, wall-paper, "fig-paste," and for 
stiffening chintzes. The test of starch is iodine, which 
forms in solution a beautiful blue iodide of starch. 
Sago is the starch from the pith of the palm-tree ; 
tapioca and arrow-root are made from the roots of 
South American marshy plants. Very many of the 
farinaceous preparations sold for the sick and invalid, 
under high-sounding names, are simply wheat or 
corn starch, put up in fancy papers and gilt lettering. 

Gum (C 12 H 10 O 10 ). — This includes a variety of sub- 
stances which exude from the bark of trees. Ex. : 
Cherry, plum. Gum-arabic is derived from an Aca- 
cia tree. 



STARCH. 159 

Pectic Acid, or Pectine. — This is a variety of 
gum existing in certain fruits, as the currant, apple, 
etc., which forms the vegetable jelly so much used 
as a sweetmeat. In the fully ripened fruit, this turns 
to sugar, and hence, as every housewife knows, a 
jelly cannot be made from the fruit except at a cer- 
tain stage in the ripening process. 

Cellulose, Ltgnine, etc. (C 12 H 10 O 10 ). — "Woody fibre 
is found in various modifications — in the heart of a 
tree, in shells of nuts, and stones of fruits. Its cells, 
filled with lignin, are hard and compact ; in the sap- 
wood, its cells, open and full only of sap, are soft and 
porous; in elder-pith and cork, they are light; in 
flax and cotton, pliable ; in the bran of wheat and 
corn, very digestible. It composes the cells of all 
plants, giving them strength and firmness, and is 
found even in delicate fruits, holding their luscious 
juices. 

Secretion.— All vegetation consists of these simple 
cells. They seem alike to the eye, yet they have a won- 
derful power of secretion. The cell of the sugar- 
maple converts the sap into sugar — the milk-weed, 
into a milky juice — the caoutchouc, into rubber ; the 
pie-plant manufactures oxalic acid, and the rose-petal 
the most delicate of perfumes. Then again they are 
true to themselves. There seems to be a law of God 
stamped on each cell, so that when we cut a tiny bud 
from a tree and graft it into another, it remains con- 
sistent with itself. It develops into a limb, and years 
pass hj— -the few single cells become a myriad, yet 



160 ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY. 

they have changed not. The sap flows upward in 
the tree ; but at a certain point — a hidden threshold 
which no human eye can discern — it comes under a 
new and strange influence. It is here transformed, 
and produces fruit and flowers, in accordance with 
this new law. Somehow quince-juice is made into 
pears, locust-juice blooms out into fragrant acacias, 
while sweet apples and sour apples hang " cheek- 
by-jowl" on the same limb. 

Uses. — These are wonderfully various. Woody fibre 
is woven into cloth, built into houses, twisted into 
rope, twine, and thread, cut into fuel, carved into 
furniture. We eat it, wear it, walk on it, write on it, 
sit on it, print on it, pack our clothes in it, sleep in 
it, ride in it, and burn it. 

Curious Discovery. — It has lately been found that, 
by feeding the roots of a tree with some coloring 
matter, the wood of the trunk may be stained to 
imitate any color desired. In this way, common 
pine or maple takes the appearance of the rarest 
wood — mahogany, rosewood, etc. 

Paper is made from rags of all kinds, straw, or 
indeed almost any substance containing cellular 
tissue. The finest writing-paper is manufactured 
from the best of linen rags, brought from Italy. 
The rags are first shredded upon scythe blades — 
i. e., the seams are ripped open, buttons cut off, and 
the dust shaken out. 2d. They are steamed in a solu- 
tion of chloride of lime for ten or twelve hours until 
they are thoroughly UeacJied. 3d. They are received 



STARCH. 161 

by a machine that alternately lacerates them by a 
cylinder set with razor-like blades, and washes them 
with pure cold water for six hours, or until they are 
reduced to a mass resembling rice and milk. 4th. 
This mass receives a delicate blue tint from smalt — 
powdered glass colored with oxyd of cobalt. 5th. 
It is diluted with HO to the consistency of city milk, 
and sifted, to strain out the waxed ends and knots 
of thread that cause the provoking little lumps that 
catch our pen when we write rapidly on poor paper. 
6th. It flows over an endless or circular belt of wire- 
gauze, about 30 feet long, beneath which is a steam 
air-pump that greedily sucks down the water from 
the pulp, as it slowly passes along, gaining consist- 
ency and firmness until it comes to a part of the belt 
called the " dandy-roll," consisting of a cylinder, on 
the surface of which are wires arranged in parallel 
rows, or fancy letters, which print upon the moist 
paper any design — constituting what are termed 
"laid," "wire-wove," or "water-marks." 7th. The 
paper, very soft and moist as yet, but still quite 
paperish in its appearance, passes between rollers 
that squeeze out the water; then between others 
which are hot and dry it, which bring it, 8th, to a 
vat of sizing, composed of the same material as the 
gelatin of calves-foot jelly, into which it plunges, 
and at the opposite side emerges only to come be- 
tween other rollers that squeeze and dry it — at the 
end of which it passes under a cylinder, set with 
knives, that clip the roll into sheets of any desired size. 



162 ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY. 

Parchment is prepared by plunging unsized paper 
for a few seconds in 80 3 and HO, then washing off 
the acid. This strengthens it in some unknown Avay, 
and entirely changes its appearance and character, 
so that a narrow strip will support a hundred pound 
weight, though before a small fraction of that would 
have torn it instantly. 

Linen. — This is made from the inner bark of flax. 
The plant is first pulled from the ground to preserve 
the entire length of the stalk ; next " rotted" by ex- 
posure to air and moisture, when the decayed outer 
bark is removed by " breaking;" then, by "hatchel- 
ing," the long fine fibres are divided into shreds, and 
laid parallel, while the tangled ones are separated 
as " tow." It is then bleached on the grass, which 
renders the gray coloring-matter soluble by boiling 
in lye. The whitened flax is lastly woven into cloth. 

Cotton consists of the beautiful hollow white hairs 
arranged around the seed of the cotton-plant. As 
it is always pure and white — except Nankin cotton, 
which is yellow — it would require no bleaching did 
it not become soiled in the process of spinning, etc. 

Gun-Cotton is prepared by dipping cellular tissue 
— cotton, sawdust, printing-paper, etc. — in strong 
N0 5 . It is then carefully washed and dried. It is 
not materially changed in appearance, although it 
has less strength. It sometimes takes fire at the 
boiling-point of HO. It explodes with much greater 
violence and suddenness than gunpowder, and for 
that reason is more liable to burst the gun. 



STARCH. 163 

Collodion is a solution of gun-cotton in sulplmric 
ether and alcohol. It forms a syrupy liquid, which 
is an excellent substitute for courtplaster. 

Eremacausis. — When wood decays slowly in the 
open air, the H passes off first, the proportion of C 
increases, the color darkens, and a black carbona- 
ceous mass like muck remains, called humus. This 
is of great value to the soil, as its pores absorb NH 3f 
and by its decay furnishes that and C0 2 to the grow- 
ing plant When the supply of humus is exhausted 
from the soil, we restore it by adding straw, etc., and 
by ploughing under green crops. 

Destructive Distillation of Wood. — When wood 
is heated to a high temperature, with no O present, 
or an imperfect supply, as in our stoves, it is decom- 
posed, the charcoal remains, while the volatile Con- 
stituents pass over hi the form of illuminating gas, 
HO, pyroligneous acid, and wood-tar. This latter is 
a thick liquid used for calking and tarring ships : on 
distillation it yields benzole, creosote, and paraffine* 

Pyroligneous Acid {wood-vimgar) is obtained by 
the distillation of beech-wood. It contains much 
creosote and acetic acid. On account of the former 
property it is used for curing hams in commerce, and 
on account of the latter, for making salts called 
acetates. 

Creosote (flesh preserver) is a colorless liquid with 
a flavor of burnt wood. It is poisonous when taken 
in any quantity. It is a powerful antiseptic, and a 
mixture of 1 part creosote in 100 parts HO will, in a 



164 ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY. 

few hours, give a ham a delicate smoky flavor and 
render it incapable of putrefaction. Creosote im- 
parts to smoke its characteristic odor, and renders it 
so irritating to the eyes, and also gives to it the 
power of curing hams, dried beef, etc. 

Tar is made, like charcoal, by burning heaps of 
wood under a covering of earth which excludes the 
air : an imperfect combustion ensues, the resinous 
matter exudes, and, trickling down to the hollow 
bottom, collects and runs into a reservoir. On the 
extensive pine-barrens of North Carolina the tar of 
commerce is principally produced. 

Turpentine. — When tar is distilled it separates 
into pitch, which remains, and oil of turpentine, which 
passes off. The latter, redistilled, forms the rectified 
" spirits of turpentine." The residuum- of the distil- 
lation is called "rosin." 

Coal-Tar is formed, as we have seen, in the process 
of making illuminating gas. This was formerly 
thought valueless, but is now used for a variety of 
purposes. As a cement for roofs, walks, and pave- 
ments, for oiling machinery, and preserving wood 
from decay, it is invaluable. On distillation it 
yields the following, among other products : 1st, 
benzole (benzine), used as a solvent for gutta-percha, 
caoutchouc, wax, and for removing grease-spots. 
This, by distilling with N0 5 , gives nitro-benzole, 
which so nearly resembles the oil of bitter almonds 
that it is used for it in perfumery, confectionery, 
etc. By heating it with acetic acid and iron-ilings 



STARCH. 165 

analine is commonly prepared. 2d, 'Paraffine, a hard, 
white, tasteless solid, like spermaceti. It forms 
beautiful candles, which look and burn like the 
finest of wax. 3d, Analine, from which some of the 
most exquisite colors of every shade are produced. 
Example : Mauve, magenta. "When first prepared, 
analine was worth more than gold, and is even now 
expensive ; but its dyeing properties are very intense. 
(Who but a chemist would have searched for such 
brilliant colors in coal-tar !) 4th, Carbolic acid, which, 
by heating with N0 5 , dyes a rich yellow ; it is also 
used as* a disinfectant. The production of dye-stuffs 
from coal-tar formed an era in organic chemistry, 
and revolutionized the whole art of dyeing and 
calico-printing. 

Petroleum is doubtless the product of the distil- 
lation of organic matter beneath the surface of the 
earth. It is not always connected with coal, as it is 
often found outside the coal-measures, &s in North- 
western Pennsylvania and New York. The distilla- 
tion must have taken place at a much greater depth 
than that at which the oil is now found, as it would 
naturally rise through the fissures of the rock and 
gather in the cavities above. Sometimes the oil has 
collected on the surface of subterranean pools of 
salt-water, so that after a time the oil is exhausted, 
and salt-water only is pumped up ; or if the well 
strikes the lower part of the cavity, the water will 
first be pumped and afterward the oil. The crude 
oil from the well is purified by distillation. That 



166 ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY. 

which passes over at the lowest temperature is called 
napMha: as the heat is increased, there passes over 
next the kerosene oil for illumination, and lastly the 
lubricating oil. The kerosene is deodorized and 
decolorized by the use of sugar of lead, S0 3 , KO, 
and other chemicals, which are stirred in the oil, 
after which it is redistilled. 

Bitumen or Asphaltum. — Petroleum (petra, a rock, 
and oleum, oil) and naphtha, flowing from the 
ground, have formed beds of bitumen in various 
parts of the world. This change is caused by a 
gradual oxydation and hardening, as turpentine 
changes to rosin. On the island of Trinidad is a 
lake called Tar Lake. It is nearly three miles in 
circumference. Below it is a bed of coal, from which 
the oil is doubtless distilled. The bitumen from the 
lake is used for the same purposes as pitch, which 
it closely resembles. Near the shore it is hard and 
compact, except in hot weather, when it becomes 
sticky. At the centre it is soft, and fresh bitumen 
boils up to the surface. Asphaltum is found in im- 
mense quantities in California and in Canada. It is 
a natural cement for laying stone or brick. It was 
used in building the walls of Babylon, for which 
purpose it was gathered from the fountain of Is on 
the banks of the Euphrates. It was a prominent 
ingredient in the " Greek Fire," so much used by 
the nations of Eastern Europe in their naval wars, 
even as late as the fourteenth century. This con- 
sisted of bitumen, sulphur, and pitch, which was 



STARCH. 167 

thrown through long copper tubes, from hideous 
figures erected on the prow of the vessel. It was 
said to be inextinguishable except by wine or vine- 
gar. Bitumen is used in making the famous prome- 
nades of the Boulevards in Paris. 

Cane-Sugar (C 12 H n Oii)* is obtained from the sap 
of the sugar-maple, sugar-cane, sorghum, and the 
juice of the beet. In making it from the sugar-cane, 
the canes are crushed between iron cylinders, thus 
expressing the juice. As it sours very soon, from 
the heat of the climate in which it grows, a little 
lime is added to neutralize the acid, and it is then 
evaporated to a thick jelly, and set aside to cool. 
The sugar crystallizes readily, forming broivn sugar, 
which is put in perforated casks to drain. The 
drainings constitute molasses. 

Refining of Sugar, — Brown sugar is refined by dis- 
solving it in HO, then adding albumen (whites of 
eggs, blood, etc.), which, on heating, coagulates and 
settles to the bottom with the coarser impurities. 
The solution is then filtered through animal charcoal, 

- Ex. : A very brilliant illustration of the presence of C in 
C 12 H 11 11 is obtained by putting on a clean white plate a mixture 
of finely pulverized white sugar and KO.C10 5 . Upon adding a 
few drops of S0 3 , a vivid combustion will ensue. By mixing 
also a few iron and steel filings, and performing the experiment 
in a dark room, or out of doors at night, fiery rosettes will, flash 
through a rose-colored flame, and produce a fine effect. The 
contrast between the white plate and mixture and the dense black 
carbonaceous compound covering the adjacent floor, is very strik- 
ing to the eye. 



168 ile:.ientaly chemistry. 

and finally evaporated in vacuum-pans, from which 
the aii- is exhausted, so that the sugar boils at 140°F., 
and all danger of burning is avoided. From this 
the sugar crystallizes, and the white sugar is set aside 
to drain. The drainings constitute " syrup," " sugar- 
house molasses," etc. 

Rock Candy is formed by suspending threads in a 
strong solution of sugar. It crystallizes upon the 
rough surface in large six-sided prisms. 

Confectionery is commonly supposed to be made 
from sugar. Alba terra (white earth) is now largely 
imported from Ireland for use in lozenges, candy 
drops, etc., enough sugar only to flavor being added. 
We can and should test all the candy we purchase 
by putting a small piece in a glass of water. What- 
ever settles to the bottom cannot be sugar, but is a 
vile adulteration. Candies also are often colored by 
the direst poisons, so that prudence would forbid 
the use of any colored candy whatsoever. The 
grocer or dealer is as liable to be mistaken or igno- 
rant in regard to the purity of his candies as we 
ourselves. Licorice drops are frequently only the 
poorest brown sugar, terra alba, and a flavoring of 
licorice to make the unwholesome mixture palatable. 
Gum-drops are generally made, not from gum-arabic, 
but the best kinds are composed of a species of glue 
manufactured out of hoofs, parings of hides, offal, 
etc., from the slaughter-houses. And yet, however 
repugnant it may appear, this glue is perfectly clean 
and wholesom . Many kinds of gum-drops and 



STARCH. 1G9 

lozenges are made from dextrine, terra alba, plaster 
of Paris, a little sugar, and some flavoring extract. 

Caromel, familiarly called burnt sugar, is formed 
whenever sugar is heated above 400° F., when it 
parts with four equivalents of water, leaving the 
in excess, as when sweetmeats boil over' on the stove. 
It is used extensively in coloring liquors. 

Grape-Sugar (C 12 H 14 0i 4 ).— This variety of sugar 
includes the sugar of grapes, figs, all common fruits, 
honey, etc., in which forms we are familiar with it. 
It has much less sweetness than cane-sugar. 

Sugar from Starch or Wood. — Starch and woody 
fibre differ only from grape-sugar by four atoms of 
HO. By slowly heating with S0 3 , diluted largely 
with HO, common sawdust, paper, and old rags 
even, can be converted into sugar. Indeed, Profes- 
sor Pepper speaks of eating a fine quality of grape- 
sugar made out of an old flannel shirt he had out- 
grown. The weight of sugar exceeds that of the 
woody fibre used by the additional four elements 
of HO. This change takes place in the plant. The 
green fruit contains starch, which, as the fruit ripens, 
is turned into grape-sugar. If it over-ripens, the 
sweetness is lost, as the sugar is reabsorbed by the 
plant and converted into woody fibre again. In the 
sap of the sugar-maple tree there is much grape- 
sugar, but as the leaves start they hasten to stop this 
pilfering of their sweet juices by turning it into 
cellular tissue — into the wood of the tree. The 
farmer knows that if he does not cut his grass at the 

8 



170 ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY. 

proper time it will undergo this change, and become 
tough and tasteless and of little value to him. The 
starch in potatoes is turned to sugar by freezing, and 
so frozen potatoes taste sweet. 

r 






FEKMENTATION. 

If a solution of starch or sugar be exposed to the 
air it will undergo no change, but if there be added 
a little ferment or yeast, flour-paste, or any albu- 
minous substance (t. e., one containing N), in a de- 
composing state, it will immediately commence 
breaking up into new compounds. There are two 
stages in this chemical change. 

1st. Alcoholic Fermentation. — In this, the sugar 
is resolved into alcohol, water, and carbonic acid. The 
two former remain in the liquid, while the latter 
escapes in little bubbles of gas. The reaction is as 
follows : 

C12 H u U 




2(C 4 H 6 2 ). 2HO + 4CO 



2d. Acetous Fermentation.— The second stage 
succeeds the first immediately, if not checked, and 
by absorbing oxygen from the air, the alcohol is broken 
up into acetic acid and water. 



FERMENTATION. 171 

C 4 H 6 2 + 4 (from the air) 




0* H, O, + 2HO 



Yeast is composed of microscopic plants formed 
during the process of fermentation. So minute are 
they, that it is said a cubic inch contains 1,200,000,000 
of them. In the malting of barley they spring up 
in great abundance, making common brewer's yeast. 
The yeast-cakes of the kitchen are formed by expos- 
ing moistened Indian meal, containing a ferment, to 
a moderate temperature until the gluten or albu- 
minous matter of the cake has undergone this alco- 
holic fermentation. It is then laid aside for use. A 
heat of 212°, or a cold of 10°, will kill the yeast 
plant and destroy its efficiency as a ferment. 

Malt. — In making malt, the barley is thoroughly 
moistened, and then spread on the floor of a dark 
room (malting-room), to heat and sprout. Here a 
curious change ensues, identical with that which 
takes place in every planted seed. Each one con- 
tains starch and a nitrogenous substance called glu- 
ten. The tiny plant not being able to support itself 
in the beginning, has here a little patrimony to start 
with in life, but, as the starch is insoluble in its sap, 
it must first be changed to sugar. We see, there- 
fore, the need of a ferment ; but it would not answer 
to store up in the seed an active ferment, as that 
might cause a change before the plant was ready to 



172 ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY. 

grow, and thus the plant's capital be wasted. The 
gluten is therefore a latent ferment, as it were. As 
soon as the seed is planted it absorbs moisture from 
the ground, is turned into diastase — an active fer- 
ment — the starch is converted into sugar, dissolved, 
and immediately applied to the uses of the growing 
plant. This change takes place in the malting-room. 
The barley sprouts, and a part of its starch is 
turned to sugar, so that it tastes quite sweet. If 
this germination were allowed to proceed, the little 
barley sprout would turn this sugar into woody fibre. 
To prevent this the grain is heated in a kiln until 
the germ is destroyed. Barley in this condition is 
called malt, and is then transported to the breweries. 

Brewing Beer. — The malt is crushed and digested 
in water, to convert all the remaining starch into 
sugar. Having been boiled, to clarify it, hops and 
yeast are added, and fermentation immediately com- 
mences. Bubbles of gas rise to the top with a low 
hissing sound, yeast gathers into a foamy cream that 
comes to the surface of the tub, and the alcohol 
gradually accumulates in the liquid. It is now 
drawn off into tight casks, where it undergoes a sec- 
ond fermentation ; the flavor of the beer ripens, and 
the C0 2 collecting, gives to the liquor, when drawTi, 
its sparkling, foamy appearance. 

Lager Beer (Lagen, to he) is so called because 
it is allowed to lie for months in a cool cellar, where 
it ripens very gradually. It is also fermented much 
more dowly and perfectly than ale or porter. 



FERMENTATION. 173 

Wines are commonly made from the juice of the 
grape. The juice, or must, as it is called, is placed 
in vats in the cellar, where the low temperature pro- 
duces a very slow fermentation. Before the sugar 
is all converted into C0 2 and alcohol, the wine is 
bottled. The undecomposed sugar gives the flavor 
to sweet wines, while the C0 2 , formed afterward and 
dissolved in the liquid, produces the effervescence of 
sparkling wines. The sugar keeps the wine and 
rather improves its body for even a couple of centu- 
ries. The bouquet, or flavor of wines, is given by a 
very volatile liquid called cenanthic ether. It is de- 
veloped in its perfection by age alone, and gives the 
value to old wines. The acidity of wine is due to a 
small quantity of tartaric acid combined with KO, 
forming the bitartrate of potash (cream of tartar), 
which gradually separates and collects upon the 
sides and bottoms of the casks and bottles in a 
white incrustation. 

Alcohol in Beer and Wine. — Alcohol is the in- 
toxicating principle alike of all varieties of liquors, 
ale, beer, wine, cider, and the domestic wines. Ale 
contains from five to ten per cent, of alcohol ; wine 
varies from five per cent, in the light Champagne to 
twenty-five per cent, in the strong Port, Madeira, or 
Sherry. 

Ardent Spirits. — When any fermented liquor is 
distilled, the alcohol passes over at a temperature 
of 173°, together with some water and fragrant 
substances which are condensed. In this way 



174 



ELE^IESTAKY CHEMISTKY. 



"brandy is made from wine ; rum from fermented 
molasses ; whiskey from fermented corn, rye, or po- 
tatoes ; gin from fermented barley and rye, after- 
ward redistilled with juniper-berries ; alcohol alone 
from whiskey. The percentage of alcohol in these 
spirituous liquors varies from fifty to seventy per 
cent. The accompanying cut represents an appara- 
tus used for this distillation. A is the boiler, B the 




A Still. 



dome, C a tube passing into S, the condenser, where 
it is twisted into a spiral form called the worm, in 
which the vapor from the boiler is condensed, and 
drops out at D. 

Alcohol (C 4 H 6 2 ) is prepared by distilling whiskey, 



FEEMENTATTON. 175 

and is sometimes called spirits of wine. It boils at 
173°, and has never been frozen even at — 166° R It 
contains, when purest, ten per cent, of HO, which 
can be separated by adding some substance like 
CaCl, which has a strong affinity for HO. It is 
then called anhydrous or absolute alcohol. When 
C 4 H 6 2 is exposed to the air the spirit evaporates, 
while it also attracts moisture from the atmosphere. 
The chemist discovers this when he neglects to put 
the extinguisher on his alcohol-lamp and finds that 
he cannot relight it without moistening the wick 
with fresh alcohol. It burns without smoke and 
with intense heat, owing to the abundance of H and 
deficiency of C, and is therefore of great value in 
the arts. It is also of incalculable importance as a 
solvent in forming tinctures of many substances — ■ 
roots, resins, fragrant oils, etc. 

Effects of AlcoJwl.—'Wheii pure it is a deadly poison. 
When diluted, as in the ordinary liquors, it is stimu- 
lative and intoxicating. Its influence is on the 
brain and nervous system ; — deadening the natural 
affections, dulling the intellectual operations and 
moral instincts ; seeming to pervert and destroy all 
that is pure and holy in man, while it robs him of 
his highest attribute — reason. It is a blight upon a 
family, a curse to society, and the bane of our civili- 
zation. In a word, alcohol makes drunkards, and 
a drunkard is the saddest, most shocking sight this 
world affords. 

Ethee (C 4 H 5 0). — Sulphuric ether is formed by the 



176 ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY. 

distillation of CAOa with S0 3 . The S0 3 simply 
takes an atom of HO out of the alcohol. It has a 
fragrant odor, boils at 96°, and bums with more 
light and smoke but less heat than alcohol. By the 
action of the other acids on C 4 H 6 2 varieties of 
ether are produced — viz., nitric ether, carbonic 
ether, etc. 

Amylic Alcohol {fusel oil) is one of a large class 
of substances similar to alcohol, and thus called " the 
alcohols." It is formed in distilling whiskey from 
potatoes. It is present in common C 4 H 6 2 , giving 
that slightly unpleasant odor when it evaporates 
from the hand. It is extremely poisonous, and 
though contained in liquors in very small quantities, 
is said to greatly increase their destructive and in- 
toxicating properties. It is of interest, mainly be- 
cause by distilling it with different acids, various 
products are obtained, having the most delicate 
flavor and odor. Pear, apple, orange, and many 
other " flavoring essences" are thus prepared. Though 
made from the poisonous fusel oil, they are perfectly 
innocuous. 

Chloroform (C 2 HC1) is made by distilling CJI 6 2 
with chloride of lime. It is colorless, volatile, of 
a sweet taste, and should be free from any unpleas- 
ant odor when evaporated on the hand. It is mainly 
used as an anaesthetic. The value of ether and 
chloroform in alleviating pain, is beyond estimate. 
On the battle-field, in hospitals, everywhere, our 
soldiers have sunk into pleasant slumber, while the 



FERMENTATION. 177 

most painful surgical operations have been per- 
formed. 

Acetic Acid (C 4 HA, A).— "When any fermenting 
substance lias reached the first stage — the alcoholic 
fermentation — if the process be not stopped, it passes 
on to the second — the acetous fermentation, forming 
acetic acid and water. This acid is well known as 
common vinegar, of which it forms about five per 
cent. The acid of commerce is prepared by the 
action of S0 3 on acetate of lead (sugar of lead) 
PbO . A. The reaction is — 

PbO.A + S0 3 




PbO.SO, + A. 



Cider Vinegar. — Cider contains some nitrogenous 
matter, which acts as a ferment, and the vinegar of 
the apple is broken up into alcohol and carbonic 
acid. This makes what is called " old cider." By ex- 
posure to the air and heat, which always hastens 
chemical change, the alcohol passes on to the second 
stage, and the acetic acid formed produces the sour 
taste of the vinegar. " Mother" in vinegar, is a plant 
produced by the decomposition of the nitrogenous 
matter. It acts as a ferment, and frequently generates 
a nation of infusoria — vinegar eels. Acetic acid is 
a solvent of albumen, gelatin, fibrin, etc. Hence it 
takes from meat, eggs, oysters, etc., pickled in it, 
their most strengthening constituents. For the 



178 ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY. 

same reason, vinegar is a valuable assistant in digest- 
ing such food. It allays thirst, and was anciently 
carried by the Roman soldiers in a little flask for 
that purpose. In the case of young ladies who use 
it (as well as slate-pencils), to relieve corpulency, it 
produces delicacy and finally consumption. Any 
sugar added to vinegar quickly passes to the second 
stage of fermentation, and increases its strength. 
Indeed, vinegar is sometimes made entirely from 
tea-leaves, which act as the ferment, and sweetened 
water. Vinegars of commerce are frequently sharp- 
ened by the addition of S0 3 and pungent spices. 
We can easily detect these by evaporating a half- 
gill in a saucer, placed over boiling water. As it 
boils down, add a little honey. If the grape-sugar 
it contains turns black, it is proof of the presence of 
S0 3 . As the last of the liquid evaporates, the odor 
of cayenne pepper, etc. (if there be any), can be 
readily distinguished. 

A neiv Method. — The following method has lately 
been adopted in England. A thin liquid made from 
malt and HO is allowed to pass into the first stage 
of fermentation. A large vat is filled with short 
pieces of wicker-work, which are kept wet with an 
old vinegar wash until the surface of the wicker-work 
is covered with young vinegar-plants ; these grow 
until they fill all the empty space. The weak alco- 
holic liquid is now permitted to trickle down through 
this vat full of mother, while at the same time the 
heat of the chemical change causes an upward cur- 




FERMENTATION. 1 79 

of air through, holes at the bottom of the vat. 
Before the liquid reaches the faucet below, it presses 
into the second stage of fermentation. 

Quick Vinegar Process. — Vinegar is now made 
on a large scale by filtering a mix- 
ture of alcohol and yeast through a 
cask filled with beech shavings 
soaked in vinegar. As the ferment- 
ing alcohol slowly trickles down, it 
comes in close contact with the air, 
absorbing O so rapidly that some- 
times before it reaches the bottom 
it becomes entirely converted into vinegar. 

Preserves frequently work, as it is called, and 
then sour. The bubbles of gas which rise to the 
surface indicate the first or alcoholic stage of fer- 
mentation. If neglected, this soon passes to the 
second. It may be checked by scalding, which de- 
stroys the ferment. 

Vegetable Acids. 

There are many of these found native in plants — 
most generally, however, combined with some base. 

Oxalic Acid (C 4 H 6 ; O) is familiar in the sour taste 
of pie-plant, sorrel, etc., in which it is combined with 
KO, which largely neutralizes its acid properties. 
It is prepared by the action of N0 5 on sugar.* O 

* Oxalic acid is also made on a large scale from sawdust, 
soda, and potash. The woody fibre is resolved into oxalic acid, 



180 ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY. 

is a potent poison. Its antidote is a drink of pow- 
dered magnesia, or chalk, stirred in HO. It is a 
test of lime, forming a delicate white precipitate of 
oxalate of lime. Its solution is much used to re- 
move ink stains, and it is sold for this purpose under 
the deceptive and dangerous name of " salts of 
lemon." The acid unites with the iron of the ink, 
and the oxalate of iron thus made is easily dis- 
solved in HO. It should be thus washed out im- 
mediately, as it will corrode the cloth. The crystals 
of O, it should be noticed, very much resemble those 
of Epsom salts, and many serious mistakes have oc- 
curred in consequence. 

Tartaric Acid (C 8 H 4 Oi , T) exists in many fruits, 
principally in the grape, combined with KO as 
K0.2T, the bitartrate of potassa. This settles during 
the making of wine, as we have seen, and when puri- 
fied is called cream of tartar. From this T is made. 
It forms large, colorless crystals, of a pleasant acid 
taste, which are permanent in the air. Its solution 
gradually becomes mouldy and turns into A. Ro- 
chelle salt is a double tartrate of potassa and soda ; 
it is a purgative, and is much used in Rochelle, or 
Seidlitz, powders. These are combined in a blue and 
a white paper. The former holds 120 grains of 
Rochelle salt, and 40 grains of bicarbonate of soda ; 

which combines with the bases, forming oxalates of soda and 
potash. From these the acid is readily obtained. Sawdust will 
yield more than half its weight of crystals of this salt 



VEGETABLE ACIDS. 181 

the latter 35 grains of tartaric acid. These are dis- 
solved in separate goblets. The one containing the 
acid is emptied into the other, when the C0 2 is set 
free, producing a violent effervescence and disguis- 
ing the taste of the medicine. Tartar emetic is a 
double tartrate of potassa and antimony. 

Citpjc Acid (citrus, lemon) is the sour principle of 
the citron, orange, lemon, cranberry, etc. It is com- 
bined with lime in the onion. 

Malic Acid (malus, an apple) is found in the apple, 
peach, pear, plum, cherry, etc. 

Tannic Acid (tannin) is found in the leaves and 
bark of many trees. Example : Oak, hemlock, su- 
mach. Nutgalls is an excrescence which forms on 
oak-trees when punctured by insects for the purpose 
of laying their eggs. Tea and coffee contain from 8 
to 10 per cent, of tannin. It has a bitter, astrin- 
gent, puckering taste, is soluble in water, and har- 
dens all albuminous substances, such as gelatine, 
etc. 

Tanning. — After the hair has been removed from 
the skins by milk o lime, they are soaked for days, 
the best kinds for months, in vats full of water and 
ground oak or hemlock bark (tan-bark). The tannic 
acid of the bark is dissolved, and entering the pores 
of the skin, unitss with the gelatin, forming a hard 
insoluble compound which is the basis of leather. 
Leather is blackened by washing the hide on on 3 
side with a solution of copperas (FeO.S0 3 ). TI13 
tannic acid unite i w.th the iron, forming a tamuta 



182 ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY. 

of iron — a real ink. In the same way drops of tea 
on a knife-blade stain it black. 

Ink is made by adding a solution of nutgalls to 
one of copperas. The tannate of iron thus formed 
has a pale blue-black color, as in the best writing- 
inks. By exposure to the air the iron absorbs more 
0, and becomes changed from the protoxide to the 
sesquioxide, thus darkening in color until it is a 
deep black. Gum-arabic is added to the ink to 
thicken it and regulate its flow from the pen. Cloves 
or corrosive sublimate are used to prevent mouldi- 
ness. Steel pens are corroded by the free S0 3 con- 
tained in the ink, but gold pens are not affected by it. 

Experiment. — The following is an instructive ex- 
periment, illustrating the manner of making ink, 
of removing stains with oxalic acid, and also the 
relative strength of the acids and alkalies. Take a 
large test-tube, and add the following reagents in 
solution cautiously, drop by drop, watching the re- 
sult and explaining the reactions : 

Sulphate of iron {copperas) , FeO . S0 3 

Tannic acid (tannin) C54 H22 Om 

Oxalic acid C 4 H 6 

• Carbonate of soda (sal-soda) NaO . C0 a 

Hydrochloric acid (muriatic) HC1 

Ammonia (hartshorn) NH 3 

Nitric acid (aquafortis) N0 5 

Potassa (potash) KO 

Sulphuric acid (oil of vitriol) S0 3 

Gallic Acid is alwa s a companion of tannin in 



OILS AND FATS. 183 

the substances we have named, and is formed 
from it by exposure to the air. In some hair-dyes 
the hair is first wet with gallic acid, and then with a 
solution of nitrate of silver. The acid decomposes 
the salt, and the liberated oxyd of silver colors the 
hair. 



OILS AND FATS. 



The difference between oils and fats is only that 
of temperature; the former remain liquid at ordi- 
nary degrees of heat, while the latter is a solid. " A 
fat may be called a solid oil, and an oil a liquid fat/' 
with equal propriety. The peculiar odor of each is 
due to some volatile acid. They are divided into 
two classes — fixed oils and volatile oils. The former 
produce a permanent stain on paper, the latter do 
not. " A cork twisted into the neck of a bottle con- 
taining a fixed oil makes no noise ; in a volatile oil 
it squeaks.' 

The Fixed Oils. 

Constitution. — All fatty bodies are salts, being 
composed of stearin, margarin, and olein. These 
consist of three acids — stearic, margaric, and oleic, 
combined with a common base, glycerin ; thus : 

Stearic acid, \ ( Stearin. 

Margaric acid, >- with Glycerin (as a base), form •< Margarin. 
Oleic acid, ) ( Olein. 






184 ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY. 

The first two of these salts are solids at common 
temperatures, and form fats ; the latter is a liquid, 
and forms oils. The relative proportion of olein 
contained in any fatty substance determines its flu- 
idity. Ex. : Stearin is abundant in tallow, and mar- 
garin in butter, hence their comparative consistency. 
Lard, on the other hand, contains so much olein that 
it is expressed in large quantities as " lard-oil.'' Olive- 
oil contains much olein and margarin; the former 
remains fluid at ordinary temperatures, but the 
latter, in cold weather, hardens into a thick deposit, 
and renders the oil extremely viscid. 

Glycerin is named from its sweet taste. It is 
made from tallow, and is an odorless transparent 
syrup. It is soluble in Up and alcohol. Its healing 
properties are remarkable, and its use is common in 
dressing sores, insect bites, chapped hands, etc. 
When highly heated it is decomposed, and produces 
an acrid substance (acroleine) with which we are 
familiar in the disagreeable smell of a smouldering 
candle-wick and burning fat. 

By the action of N0 5 and S0 3 glycerin is con- 
verted into nitro-glycerin, an oil that explodes with 
most fearful violence by the slightest concussion, or 
even from unexplainable causes. It is used in 
blasting. 

Lye is a strong solution of KO, and is obtained, 
as we have seen, by leaching ashes. The alkali is 
contained in the ashes in the form of KO.C0 2 . At 
the bottom of the leach-tub a little lime is commonly 



THE FIXED OILS. 185 

placed to absorb the C0 2 and leave the KO unneutral- 
ized by the acid, and therefore stronger. 

Home-made Soaps are formed by heating "lye" 
and " soap-grease." In this process the potassa of 
the lye drives off the glycerin of the grease and 
makes new salts which contain KO, instead of gly- 
cerin, as the base ; thus : 

Stearic acid, ) . , - , v ( Stearate of potassa. 

_, . ( with Potassa (as a base), ) _ _ ... 

Marganc " > - < Margarate of " 

Oleic - ) Changet0 (Oleateof « 

These three salts constitute soap. The expelled gly- 
cerin remains floating around alone through the 
mass. This soap is soft because of the attraction 
of KO for HO. The boiling merely hastens the 
chemical change. It takes place more slowly in the 
making of " cold soap." 

Hard Soap contains soda instead of KO as a base. 
This is not deliquescent,* and so the soap retains its 
solid form. Soda soap can be formed from potassa 
soap by the addition of common salt (NaCl). 

Reaction. — The O of the potassa (KO) unites with 
the sodium (Na) of the salt (NaCl), forming soda 
(NaO). The chlorine (CI) of the salt (NaCl) unites 
with the potassium (K) of the potassa (KO), forming 
chloride of potassium (KC1). The soda thus formed 
displaces the potassa, and makes a hard or soda 

* A deliquescent body is one that dissolves in HO, which it 
absorbs from the air. 



186 ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY. 

soap, while the KC1 remains dissolved in the water ; 
thus : 

Stearate of ] KO Nad ( Stearate of soda. 
Margarate of v == 1 Margarate of soda. 

Oleateof j NaCl NaO ( Oleate of ■ soda. 

The kind of fat used, by the amount of olein it con- 
tains, also determines the softness of the soap. Ex. : 
Tallow makes a harder soap than lard, since it has 
less olein. Soap has a powerful affinity for HO, and 
will readily absorb 50 per cent, of its weight. It is 
therefore noticeable that dealers commonly keep 
their soaps in cellars or damp places. The best old 
soap contains at least 20 per cent. 

Fancy Soaps. — Castile soap is composed of olive- 
oil and soda. Its mottled appearance is caused by 
oxyd of iron, which is stirred through it in fanciful 
designs while it is yet soft. Yellow soaps contain 
rosin in part, instead of fat, forming a rosin soap. 
Cocoanut-oil makes a soap which will dissolve in salt 
water, and is therefore used at sea. It also forms a 
strong lather, and is sold as "shaving-soap." Wash- 
ing fluids contain an unusual amount of alkali, and 
are therefore apt to be injurious to the cloth. Soap- 
balls are made by dissolving soap in a very little 
water, and then working it with starch to a proper 
consistency to be shaped into balls. White toilet- 
soaps are made from lard and soda. 

Soap in Hard Water. — Water containing any min- 
eral matter will not dissolve soap, since the lime, 



THE FIXED OILS. 187 

magnesia, etc., displace the alkali in the soap, and 
form a new soap which is not soluble, but floats on 
top as a greasy scum. Example : A potassa soap in 
lime-water changes to a lime soap. Thus — 



Stearate of \ / Stearate of \ 

Margarate of >• KO, changes to \ Margarate of [ CaO 



Oleate of J ' Oleate of ) 

The Cleansing Qualities of Soap. — There exudes 
constantly from the pores of our skin an oily per- 
spiration, and this, catching the floating dust, dries 
into a film of greasy dirt which will not dissolve 
in water. The alkali of soap combines with this 
oily substance and makes a soap of it, which is 
soluble. In addition to this the alkali also dis- 
solves the cuticle of our skin, and thus produces 
the " soapj 7 feeling," as we term it, when we handle 
soap. 

Soapsuds consists of a thin film of soap filled with 
bubbles of air. It is an excellent remedy in almost 
all cases of poisoning, and where the exact antidote 
is not at hand should be taken immediately. Soap- 
bubbles are said to be only two-millionths of an 
inch in thickness. — (Newton.) They are thinnest at 
the top, as the water runs down the sides toward 
the bottom constantly. These falling films of water 
cause the refraction of light, and a beautiful play of 
colors. 
I Adulteration.— Soap is frequently contaminated 



188 ELEMENTAEY CHEMISTRY. 

with gypsum, lime, pipe-clay, etc. These may be 
detected by dissolving a small piece in alcohol and 
noticing if there be any precipitate. 

Candles are made from tallow, stearin, paraffine, 
wax, spermaceti, etc. Tallow candles and their 
manufacture are too well known to need description. 
Stearin or adamantine candles are moulded like or- 
dinary candles. They are prepared from tallow or 
lard, which is first boiled with lime and so made 
into a soap. This soap is decomposed by sulphuric 
acid, which takes away the lime, forming sulphate of 
lime, which, being insoluble, sinks to the bottom, 
leaving the three acids of the fat floating upon the 
surface. The glycerin is also left by itself in the 
liquid, from whence it is removed and prepared for 
the market. The acids, when cool, are subjected to 
great pressure ; the olein flows out, leaving the 
stearic and margaric acids as a milk-white, odorless, 
tasteless solid, w r hich is commonly called stearin, 
since that acid is the principal constituent. Paraf- 
fine candles are made from coal-oil, as we have al- 
ready described. Wax candles are manufactured by 
the following process. A large number of cotton 
wicks are hung upon a revolving frame with project- 
ing arms. The wicks are fitted at the end with 
metal tags to keep the wax from covering that part. 
As the machine slowly turns, a man, standing ready 
with a vessel of melted wax, carefully pours a little 
dowTL each wick in succession. This process con- 
tinues until the candles are fed to the desired size. 



THE FIXED OILS. 189 

They are then well rolled on a smooth stone slab, 
the tops cut by conical tubes, the bottoms trimmed, 
and they are ready for use. The large tapers burned 
in Catholic cathedrals are made by placing the wick 
on a sheet of wax, rolling it up till the right thick- 
ness is reached, when the candle is trimmed and 
polished as before. 

Spermaceti candles are run from the white crystal- 
line solid fat which is found with sperm oil in the 
head of the sperm whale. 

Wax is found in nearly all plants. It forms the 
shiny coating of the leaves and fruit. Example : 
Lemon leaf, apple. Certain plants in Japan contain 
so much wax that it is separated by boiling and 
used for making candles. Bees gather the wax for 
the construction of their comb partly from flowers, 
and a part they manufacture from the sweet juices 
sipped from the flowers. Yellow beeswax is bleached 
by exposure in thin ribbons to the air. 

Linseed Oil is a drying oil, as it is termed — L e., it 
absorbs O from the air, and hardens by exposure. 
It is expressed from flaxseed, which furnishes about 
one-fifth of its own weight of oil. Boiled oil is made 
by boiling the crude oil with litharge (PbO) for 
several hours. The oxyd of lead combines with the 
gummy mucilage of the oil, which collects as a slimy 
sediment. Linseed oil is used in mixing paints and 
varnishes. Putty consists of linseed oil and chalk 
( Whiting) well mixed. Printers' ink is made by burn- 
ing linseed oil until it becomes thick and viscid, 



190 ELEMENTAKY CHEMISTRY. 

when lampblack is stirred in, to make it of the 
proper consistency. 

Cod Liver Oil is extracted from the liver of the 
codfish. It contains I, Br, and P, and is much 
used as a remedy in Consumption. 

Croton Oil is made from the seeds of an Indian 
plant ; and is used as a powerful purgative and for 
causing eruptions on the skin. 

Castor Oil is extracted from the castor-oil bean. 
It is used as a purgative, and also in perfumery and 
hair-oils; 

Sweet-Oil, or Olive-Oil, is an unctuous oil, L e., it 
absorbs O on exposure to the air — not hardening 
like the drying oils, but remaining sticky, and after 
a time becoming rancid from the formation of dis- 
agreeable volatile acids. Sweet-oil is expressed 
from the olive fruit. In Europe it is extensive- 
ly used instead of butter. It is employed as a 
machine-oil, although the coal-oils are now much 
preferred. 

Volatile Oils. 

The Volatile oils, unlike the Fixed, make no soaps, 
and dissolve readily in alcohol or ether. Their so- 
lution in alcohol forms an essence, hence the term 
" essential," by which they are frequently called. 

Source. — They are principally of vegetable origin. 
They are found in the petals of a flower, as the 
violet ; in the seed, as caraway ; in the leaves, as 
mint ; in the root, as sassafras ; and sometimes 



VOLATILE OILS. 191 

several kinds of oil are obtained from different parts 
of the same plant. Example : The flower, leaves, 
and rind of the orange-tree furnish each its own 
variety. The perfume of flowers is produced by 
these volatile oils ; but how slight a quantity is 
present may be inferred from the fact that one 
hundred pounds of fresh roses will give scarcely a 
quarter of an ounce of Attar of Roses. 

Preparation. — In the peppermint, the wintergreen, 
and many others the plant is distilled with water. 
The oils pass over with the steam, and are con- 
densed in a refrigerator connected with the " Mint 
Still." The oil floats on the surface of the con- 
densed water, and may be removed. A small por- 
tion, however, remains mingled with the latter, 
which thus acquires its pecu iar taste and odor, 
constituting what are termed "perfumed waters." 
Example : Rose-water, peppermint-water. In some 
flowers, as the violet, jasmin, etc., the perfume is too 
delicate to be collected in this manner. They are 
therefore laid between woollen cloths saturated with 
some fixed oil. This absorbs the essential oil, which 
is then dissolved by alcohol. Oil of lemon is ob- 
tained from the rind of the fruit by expression or by 
digesting in alcohol. Example : A good essence is 
made by putting bits of lemon-peel in a bottle of 
alcohol. 

Composition. — C 5 H 4 is the common symbol of a 
large number of these oils. Thus the oils of lemon, 
juniper, citron, black pepper, copaiba, bergamot, 



192 ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY. 

turpentine, cubebs, and oranges, are isomeric. A 
second class contains, besides C and H, a little O ; a 
third, in addition, has S. 

First Class of Volatile Oils. — Turpentine is a 
type of this division. It is made by distilling pitch 
with HO. It is generally called spirits of turpen- 
tine. It is highly inflammable, and, owing to the ex- 
cess of C, burns with a great smoke. By the union 
of an atom of its H with an atom of the O of the 
air to form HO, it is converted into rosin. In this 
way, when exposed in bottles half full, the turpen- 
tine around the nozzle becomes first sticky and then 
resinous. Old oil should not be taken to remove 
grease spots, as, while it will remove one, it will 
leave another of its own. Camphene is turpentine 
purified by repeated distillation. Burning-fluid is 
a mixture of camphene and alcohol. In the heat of 
the burning H of the latter, the C of the former is 
consumed, and this produces a bright light. The 
tendency of camphene to smoke is thus diminished, 
and the illuminating power increased. By the ac- 
tion of HC1 on turpentine or oil of lemons an arti- 
ficial camphor is produced very nearly resembling 
our common camphor. 

The Second Class includes the oils of bitter al- 
monds, cinnamon, peppermint, roses, lavender, etc. 
They are sometimes called " The Camphors," because 
of their general resemblance to the crystalline essence 
known by that name. Camphor (C 5 H 4 2 ) is obtained 
by distilling the roots and leaves of the camphor- 



RESINS AND BALSAMS. 193 

tree of Japan in water, and condensing the vapors 
in rice-straw. It is purified by sublimation. When 
kept in a bottle, it vaporizes, and its delicate crystals 
collect on the side toward the light. Taken internal- 
ly, except in small doses, it is a virulent poison. Its 
solution in alcohol is called spirits of camphor. If 
HO be added to this, the camphor will be precipita- 
ted as a flour-like powder. 

The Third Class contains S, and sometimes N. 
It includes garlic, assafoetida, hops, onions, mustard, 
horseradish, etc. They are known for their pun- 
gent taste and the disagreeable odor they often im- 
part to the breath. The oil of mustard is not con- 
tained in the seed, but is formed in it by the action 
of water and a latent ferment. This is the reason 
why mustard, when first prepared for the table, is 
bitter, but becomes pungent after a little time. 



KESINS AND BALSAMS. 

Resins are formed from the essential oils by oxy- 
dation. Example : Turpentine, as we have just 
seen, is changed to rosin, a resinous substance. If 
the resin is dissolved in some essential oil it is 
called a balsam. Example : Pitch is a true balsam, 
since by distillation it is separated into rosin and 
turpentine. 



194 ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY. 

Source. — They mostly exude from incisions in 
trees and shrubs, in the form of a balsam, which 
oxydizes on exposure to the air, and becomes a resin. 
Example : Common plum-tree, pine-tree. 

Properties of Resins. — They are translucent, brittle, 
insoluble in HO, but soluble in ether, alcohol, or any 
volatile oil, are non-conductors of electricity, and 
burn with much smoke. They do not decay, and, 
indeed, have the power of preserving other sub- 
stances. For this reason they were used in em- 
balming the bodies of the ancient Egyptians, which, 
after the lapse of two thousand years, are yet found 
dried into mummies in their mammoth tombs — the 
Pyramids. 

Eosin constitutes about 75 per cent of pitch. It 
is used in making soaps, to increase friction in violin 
bows and the cords of clock-weights, in soldering, 
and as a source of illuminating gas. Shoemakers' 
wax is made by burning rosin until partly charred. 

Lac exudes from the ficus-tree of the East Indies. 
An insect punctures the bark, and the juice flows 
out over the insect, which works it into cells in 
which to deposit its eggs. The twigs incrusted with 
the dried gum is called stick-lac, when removed from 
the wood it is seed-lac, when melted and strained, 
shellac. The liquefied resin is dropped upon large 
leaves, and so cools in broad thin pieces, as we buy 
it. Sealing-wax is made of shellac and turpentine ; 
vermilion is added to give the red color. Shellac is 
much used in making varnishes* 



RESINS AND BALSAMS. 195- 

Gum Benzoin also exudes from a tree in the East 
Indies. It contains benzoic acid. It is used in 
fumigation, in cosmetics, and on account of its fra- 
grant odor is burnt as incense, Ex. : Place some 
green sprigs under a glass receiver, and at the bot- 
tom a hot iron, on which sprinkle a little benzoic 
acid. It will sublime and collect in beautifully deli- 
cate crystals on the green leaves above, making a 
perfect illustration of winter frost-work. 

Amber is a fossil resin which has exuded in some 
past age of the world's history from trees now ex- 
tinct. It is sometimes found containing various in- 
sects perfectly preserved, which were without doubt 
entangled in the mass while it was yet soft. These 
are so beautifully embalmed in this transparent glass 
that they give us a good idea of the insect life of 
that age. It is cast up by the sea, in pieces of a few 
ounces each, on the shores of the Baltic and off the 
coast of New Jersey. It is commonly translucent, . | 

and susceptible of a high polish. It is used for or- 
naments, mouth-pieces, necklaces, buttons, etc. It 
is a prominent ingredient in carriage varnish. 

Caoutchouc or India-Bubber is a pure hydro- 
carbon, and may be considered as hardened illumi- 
nating gas. It exudes from certain trees in South 
America as a milky juice. The globules of rubber 
are suspended in it as butter is in milk. By adding 
ammonia the sap may be kept unchanged for months, 
and is sometimes exported in that form preserved in 
tightly corked bottles. The tree, it is said, yields 



196 ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY. 

about a gill per day from each incision made. A 
little clay cup is placed underneath, from which the 
juice is collected and poured over clay or wooden 
patterns in successive layers as it dries. To hasten 
the process it is carried on over large open fires, the 
smoke of which gives to the rubber its black color ; 
when pure it is almost white. When nearly hard 
the rubber will receive any fanciful design which 
may be marked upon it with a pointed stick. The 
natives often form the clay into odd shapes as bot- 
tles, images, etc., and the rubber is sometimes ex- 
ported in these uncouth forms. The solvents of 
rubber are ether, naphtha, coal-oil, turpentine, ben- 
zole, etc. It melts, but does not become solid on 
cooling. It loses its elastic power when stretched 
for a long time, but recovers it on being heated. In 
the manufacture of rubber goods for suspenders, etc., 
the rubber thread is drawn over bobbins and left 
for some days until it becomes inelastic. In this 
state it is woven, after which a hot wheel is rolled 
over the cloth to restore the elasticity. 

Vulcanized Rubber is made by heating caout- 
chouc with a small amount of sulphur. This con- 
stituted Goodyear' s original patent, and was dis- 
covered accidentally. While engaged in experi- 
menting upon improvements in this branch of manu- 
facture, he was one day talking with a friend and 
happened to drop a bit of sulphur in a pot of melted 
rubber. By one of those happy intuitions which 
seem to come only to men of genius, he watched the 



ORGANIC BASES. 197 

result, and discovered — " Yulcanized Rubber!" It 
is less liable to be hardened by cold or softened by 
heat, and admits of many uses to which common 
rubber would be entirely unsuited. When, in addi- 
tion, it is mixed with pitch and magnesia, it becomes 
a hard brittle solid, capable of a high polish, and is 
used for knife-handles, combs, and brushes. 

Gutta-Percha resembles caoutchouc in its source, 
preparation, and appearance. It softens in warm 
water, and can then be moulded into any desired 
shape. When cooled it assumes its original solidity. 
It is extensively used in taking impressions of medals, 
etc. 



OEGANIC BASES 



The organic bases, or alkaloids, as they are called, 
are the bases of true salts found in plants. They 
dissolve slightly in HO, but freely in alcohol. They 
have a bitter taste, and rank among the most fearful 
poisons known. The antidote is tannin, which forms 
with them insoluble tannates. A113' liquid contain- 
ing it is of value — as strong green tea — and should 
be immediately administered in a case of poisoning 
by any of the alkaloids. 

Opium is the dried juice of the poppy plant, which 
is extensively cultivated in Turkey for the sake of this 
product. Workmen pass along the rows soon after 



198 ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY. 

the flowers have fallen off, cutting slightly each cap- 
sule. From this incision a milky juice exudes and 
collects into a little tear. In twenty-four hours these 
are gathered and beaten up in an earthen jar with 
saliva to the proper consistency, when the mass is 
wrapped in leaves for the market. It is afterward 
purified. 

Properties. — Opium produces a powerful influence 
on the nervous system. It stimulates the brain and 
excites the imagination to a wonderful pitch of in- 
tensity. The dreams of the opium-eater are said to 
be vivid and fantastic beyond description.* The dose 
must be gradually increased to repeat the effect, and 
the result is most disastrous. The nervous system 
becomes deranged, and no relief can be secured save 
by a fresh resort to this baneful drug. Labor be- 
comes irksome, ordinary food distasteful, and racking 
pains torment the whole body. No person can be 
too careful in the use of a narcotic whose influence 
is liable to become so destructive. 

Opium-smoking. — In China the custom of smoking 
opium is fearfully prevalent. The opium is made 
into a thick syrup with water. A small portion is 
placed in the bowl of the pipe, which is held in the 
flame of an oil-lamp until the opium is partly vola- 
tilized and fully ignited. During this process, the 
smoker, reclining upon his side, gently inhales the 
fumes, and absorbs them by retaining them until 
they slow T ly pass out through the nose. Opium-shops 
- * See Appendix.- 



ORGANIC BASES. 199 

are said to be more numerous in China than even 
rice-shops. The effect is worse than that of intoxi- 
cating liquors, if it is possible to compare two such 
fearfully pernicious vices. 

Morphia. — Morphine is one of the alkaloid bases 
of opium. It is so called from Morpheus, the god 
of sleep. It is a bitter, narcotic, resinous-like sub- 
stance. It is used principally as a sulphate of mor- 
phia, in doses of one-eighth to one-fourth of a grain, 
to alleviate pain and produce sleep. Laudanum is 
the tincture of opium. Paregoric is a camphorated 
tincture of opium, with benzoic acid and oil of 
anise. 

Quinia.— Quinine is prepared from Peruvian bark. 
It is employed in medicine as a tincture of Peruvian 
bark, or in the form of sulphate of quinia, for cases 
of fever and ague and all periodic diseases. 

Nicotine is the active principle of the tobacco 
plant. It is volatile, and passes off in the smoke. 
A drop will kill a large dog. It probably produces 
the ill effects that follow the use of tobacco. 

Strychnia. — Strichnine is prepared from the nux 
vomica bean, obtained from a small tree in the East 
Indies. The "woorara," with which the South 
American Indians poison their arrows, is a variety 
of strychnine. This is so deadly that the scratch of 
a needle dipped in it would produce death. Strych- 
nine is scarcely soluble in water, but freely in the 
essential oils and chloroform. It is so intensely 
bitter that one grain will impart a flavor to twenty- 



200 ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY. 

five gallons of water. One-thirtieth of a grain has 
killed a dog in thirty seconds, while half a grain is 
fatal to a man. 

The Chromatic Test consists in placing on a clean 
porcelain plate a drop of the suspected liquid, a drop 
of S0 3 , and a crystal of bichromate of potassa. Mix 
the three very slowly with a clean glass rod. If there 
be any strychnine present, it will change the color 
into a beautiful violet tint, passing into a pale rose. 
It is, however, one of the most difficult poisons to 
detect. Arsenic was formerly used by the poisoner, 
but Marsh's test infallibly reveals its presence in the 
body of the victim, even after many years have 
elapsed. But the organic poisons are so easily acted 
upon by the fluids of the system, that in one case, 
though four grains were taken, and death ensued 
very quickly, yet the " chromatic test" failed to re- 
veal the presence of any strychnine in the stomach. 
However, the murderer is not to escape. This is 
the only poison except brucite (and that also is ex- 
tracted from nux vomica) that produces tetanus or 
lock-jaw. This symptom infallibly proves to the 
physician that death has been caused by strychnine. 
To prove this conclusively, a tiny frog is brought into 
the court-room and made to show the effects of the 
poison. So sensitive is this gentle reptile, that a few 
drops of oil containing only T ot,Vot °^ a S r£L ^ n w ^ 
instantly throw him into the most rigid locked-jaw, 
in which he is incapable of producing a single croak. 

Coffeine and Theine constitute the active prin- 



ORGANIC BASES. 201 

ciple of tea and coffee, and are isomeric. They crys- 
tallize in beautiful white prisms of a silky lustre. In 
addition, tea contains from 12 to 18 per cent, of tannic 
acid, some 15 per cent, of gluten, which is lost in the 
" grounds" (unless we imitate the Japanese and eat 
them with the tea), and a volatile oil which gives to 
it its peculiar aromatic odor and taste. Coffee con- 
tains 14 per cent, of a fixed oil, and also an essential 
oil which is developed in roasting, and is remarkably 
volatile, so that it soon escapes unless the coffee is 
kept tightly covered. 

Tea-raising. — The tea-plants are allowed to grow 
only about a foot and a half high, and resemble in 
some respects the low whortleberry bush. They are 
grown in rows, three to five in a hill, very much as 
corn is with us. The medium-sized leaves are picked 
by hand, the largest ones being left on the bushes to 
favor their growth. Each little hill or clump will 
furnish from three to five ounces of green leaves, 
or about one ounce of tea in the course of the sea- 
son. The leaves are first wilted in the sun, then 
trodden in baskets by barefooted men to break the 
stems, next rolled by the hands into a spiral shape, 
then left in a heap to heat again, and finally dried 
for the market. This constitutes Black Tea, and the 
color would be produced in any leaves left thus to 
wilt and heat in heaps in the open air. The Chinese 
always drink this kind of tea. They use no milk or 
sugar, and prepare it, not by steeping, but by pour- 
ing hot water on the tea and allowing it to stand for 



202 ELEMENTAEY CHEMISTRY. 

a few minutes. Whenever a friend calls on a China- 
man, common politeness requires that a cup of tea 
be immediately offered him. 

Green Tea is prepared like black, except that it is 
not allowed to wilt or heat, and is quickly dried over 
a fire. It is also very frequently, if not always, col- 
ored, cheap black teas and leaves of other plants 
being added in large quantities. In this country, 
damaged teas and the " grounds'' left at hotels are 
re-rolled, highly colored, packed in old tea-chests, 
and sent out as new teas. Certain varieties of black 
tea even receive a coating of black-lead to make 
them shiny. 

There are various other alkaloids that are worthy 
of mention merely. Lettuce contains one similar to 
opium, which gives it a slight narcotic influence. 
Aconite is obtained from monk's-hood, veratrine 
from the hellebore, solanine from the henbane, pi- 
perine from white, black, and long peppers — isomeric 
in white needle-shaped crystals. 

Organic Coloring Principles. 

With the exception of cochineal, all the organic 
coloring principles are of vegetable origin. The 
beautiful tints of flowers are so evanescent that they 
cannot be retained. Coloring matters are therefore 
taken of soberer hue from the interior of plants, 
where they are less exposed to the light. 

Dyeing. — Very few of the colors have such an 



ORGANIC COLORING PRINCIPLES. 203 

affinity for the fibres of the cloth that they will not 
wash out. Such as, like indigo, w T ill dye directly are 
called substantive colors. But the majority require a 
third substance which has an attraction for both the 
coloring matter and the cloth, and will hold them 
together. Such substances are called mordants (from 
mordeo, to bite), because they bite the color into the 
cloth. The most common mordants are alum, oxyd 
of tin, and copperas. In dyeing, the cloth is first 
dipped in a solution of the mordant, and then of the 
dye-stuff. Ex. : If a piece of cotton cloth be dipped 
in a decoction of madder, it will receive an unstable 
dirty red color. If, however, it be soaked first in a 
solution of alum and sugar of lead (PbO.A), the 
acetate of alumina will be formed in its fibres, and 
will act as a mordant. Now dip it into the same dye, 
and it will ogme out a brilliant red — a " fast color." 
The mordant, by means of a stamp, may be applied 
to the cloth in the form of a pattern, and when it is 
afterward washed, the color will all be removed ex- 
cept where the mordant fixed it in the printed figure. 
The same dye will produce different colors by a 
change of mordants. Ex. : Logwood and copperas 
w T ill dye black ; logwood and tin, a violet. Madder 
w T ill dye in this way red, purple, yellow, orange, and 
brown. This principle lies at the basis of dyeing 
"prints." 

Calico-printing. — A calico-printing machine is 
very complex. The cloth passes between a series of 
rollers, upon which the corresponding mordant is 



204: ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY. 

put, as ink is on type. A single machine sometimes 
prints from twenty sets of rollers ; yet each impres- 
sion follows the other so accurately, that when the 
cloth has passed through, the entire pattern is 
printed upon it with the different mordants more 
perfectly than any painter could do it, and so 
rapidly that a mile of cloth has been printed with 
four mordants in an hour. The cloth when it leaves 
the printing machine, though stamped with the 
mordants in the form of the figure, betrays nothing 
of the real design until after being dipped in the 
dye, which acting on the different mordants brings 
out the desired colors. The print is now washed, 
glazed, and fitted for the market. 

Eed and Violet Coloring Substances. — Madder is 
the root of a plant found in the East Indies. When 
first dug it is yellow, but by exposure to the air it 
absorbs O and becomes red. It is used in dyeing 
the brilliant Turkey-red. Cochineal is an insect that 
preys upon a species of cactus in Central America. 
It is raised in large plantations, dried between hot 
iron plates, and exported as an article of commerce. 
It yields the brightest scarlet and purple dyes. The 
purple of which we read in ancient writings was a 
secret with the Tyrians. King Huram, we learn, 
sent a workman to Solomon skilled in this art. The 
dye was obtained from a shell-fish that was found 
on the coast of Phoenicia. Each animal yielded a 
tiny drop of the precious liquid. A yard of cloth 
dipped twice in this costly dye was worth $150. 



ORGANIC COLORING PRINCIPLES. 205 

Brazil-wood furnishes a red which is not very per- 
manent. It is used for making red ink. Experiment : 
Boil 2 oz. of Brazil-wood in a pint of HO for fif- 
teen minutes, then add a little gum-arabic and 
alum. 

Blue Coloring Substances. — The indigo of com- 
merce is obtained from a bushy plant found in Asia. 
The juice is colorless, but by fermentation for some 
days, in vats of water, a yellow substance is formed, 
w T hich by exposure to the air absorbs O, and changes 
to a deep blue. By any deoxydizing agent the color 
of indigo may be removed at pleasure. Example : 
Add to a test-tube of boiling HO, colored with a 
solution of indigo,* a drop of N0 5 . The blue color 
will instantly disappear. Litmus is obtained from 
certain kinds of lichens, which grow on the rocks 
along the coasts of France and England. The juice 
is colorless, like the other dye-plants, but assumes 
a rich purple blue by the addition of ammonia 
(NH 3 ). 

Green Coloring Substance. — Leaf-green, as found 
in plants, is a waxy substance, containing several 
coloring matters. It seems to lie in the cells of the 
leaf in minute crystals, and to be formed by the 
action of the sunbeam. Plants removed from a 
dark cellar to the open air grow green rapidly. 

* To make this solution, mix a little pulverized indigo into 
a paste with SO3. Let it stand a few days, then add HO at 
pleasure. 



206 ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY. 



Albuminous Bodies. 

The Albuminous bodies differ, essentially from 
any yet named. They are far more complex in their 
structure, contain more nitrogen, and do not crys- 
tallize. The most important are — 

Albumen, 

Fibrin, 

Casein. 

These are isomeric, and, when taken into the 
system, are all changed into albumen before leaving 
the stomach. When decomposed by an alkali they 
yield a white inodorous solid, which will act as a 
base and form salts. This is called "Protein" 
(proteuo, I am first), and these substances them- 
selves are termed the protein compounds. Their 
composition is very complex, as may be seen from 
the following table given by Liebig : 

Albumen of blood ) 

Albumen of flesh. [ C 216 H 16 ,O fl8 N 27 S a . 

Fibrin of flesh ) 

Albumen of eggs C 21fl H 16f M N„S f . 

Casein C 288 H 228 O 90 N 36 S 2 . 

Fibrin of blood C 298 H 228 O 92 N 40 8 2 . 

Albumen. — Sources. — It exists nearly pure in the 
whites of eggs — hence the name (albus, white) ; also 
in the serum — the transparent part of the blood — 
and the juices and seeds of many plants. 

Properties. — It is soluble in cold, but insoluble in 



ALBUMINOUS BODIES. 



207 



hot HO. At a temperature of 145° F. it coagulates. 
This change we always see in the cooking of eggs. 
Alcohol, corrosive sublimate, acids, creosote, etc., 
have the power to coagulate albumen. In cases of 
poisoning by these substances it is therefore a valu- 
able antidote, as it wraps them up in an insoluble 
covering, and so protects the stomach. Albumen 
seems to have the properties of an acid and a base. 
It coagulates with an acid by uniting with it as a 
base. It coagulates with a salt by uniting with its 
base as an acid. It exists in two amorphous condi- 
tions — as a liquid in the sap of plants, the humors 
of the eye, serum of blood, etc.; as a solid in the 
seeds of plants and the nerves and brains of ani- 
mals. 

Vegetable Albumen. — If the water used in making 
starch from potatoes be boiled, it will become tur- 
bid and deposit a flaky white substance identical 
with the whites of eggs, and therefore named vege- 
table albumen. 

Fibbin constitutes chiefly the fibrous portion of 
the muscles. If a piece of lean beef be washed in 
clean HO until all the red 
color disappears, the mass 
of white tissue which will 
remain is called fibrin. 
Like albumen, it exists in 
two forms — as a liquid in 
the blood, and as a solid 
in flesh and the seeds 




Fibrin, or Muscle. 



208 ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY. 

of plants. The clotting of blood is due to the coagu- 
lation of the fibrin. 

Vegetable Fibrin — Gluten, — If wheat flour be made 
into a dough, and then kneaded in water until all 
the soluble portion is washed away, the tough glu- 
tinous mass which will remain is called gluten. It 
is identical in composition with fibrin, and is there- 
fore named vegetable fibrin. We obtain it as a gum 
when we chew wheat, thereby dissolving the starch. 
It exists most abundantly in the bran of cereal grains. 
Example : Wheat. 

Casein is found in the curd of milk (whence the 
name, caseum, cheese), in the blood, peas, and beans. 
The curdling of milk is due to the coagulation of 
its casein. When milk sours, its lactic acid com- 
bines with the alkali present, and precipitates the 
casein, which is only soluble in HO containing some 
alkali. The rennet (the dried stomach of a calf), 
used in making cheese, acts in the same manner. 

Vegetable Casein. — By treating peas as we do pota- 
toes in forming starch, and then adding a little acid 
to the water which is left after the starch settles, an 
albuminous substance is deposited, which is identical 
with casein, and has received the name vegetable 
casein. The Chinese use it largely for cheese. 

Gelatin. — Hot water dissolves a substance from 
animal membranes, skin, tendons, and bones, which, 
on cooling, forms a yielding tremulous mass called 
gelatin. As calves-foot jelly, soups, etc., it is well 
known. As an article of food it is of very little nu- 



ALBUMINOUS BODIES. 209 

tritive value. It may answer to dilute a stronger 
diet, but of itself does little to build up the body of 
an invalid. Beef-tea is by far more strengthening 
than jellies or blanc-mange. Glue is a gelatin made 
from bones, hoofs, horns, etc., by boiling in HO and 
then evaporating the solution. Isinglass is the 
purest gelatin, and is obtained from the air-bladders 
of the cod, sturgeon, and other fish. Size is gelatin 
prepared from the parings of parchment, the thin- 
nest kind of skins. It is used for sizing paper to 
fill up the pores and prevent the ink fr, m spreading, 
as it does on unsized or blotting-paper. 

Vegetable Gelatine is familiar to us in the form of 
blanc-mange and the fruit-jellies. It is nearly like 
starch or grape-sugar in its composition. It is 
called Pectine (see page 159). It is found in Ice- 
land moss, grapes, apples, quinces, and other fruits. 

Milk is a natural emulsion, composed of exceed- 
ingly minute globules diffused through a transparent 
liquid. The globules consist of a thin envelope 
of casein filled with butter. 
Being a trifle lighter than HO, 
they rise to the surface as cream. 
Churning breaks these cover- 
ings, and gathers the butter in- 
to a mass. Milk contains some QjQj "§> °|^^S 

SUgar, and this, by the action Of Mil k under Microscope. 

the O of the air changes to lactic acid, which gives 
the peculiar taste to sour milk. The casein seems 
to act as a ferment in hastening this oxydation. In 




210 ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY. 

churning, the cream always " turns," because is 
rapidly absorbed as the milk is stirred, and lactic 
acid formed. Milk sours in the stomach by the 
action of the acids, which convert it into lactic 
acid. 

Bones consist of organic and mineral matter com- 
bined. 

Analysis. (Berzelius.) 

Gelatin— (Gluten). 32.17 

Blood-vessels 1 . 13 

Phosphate of lime 51 .04 

Carbonate of lime 11 .30 

Fluoride of calcium 2 . 00 

Phosphate of magnesia 1.16 

Chloride of sodium . . 1 .20 

100.00 

By soaking a bone in HC1 the mineral matters 
will all be dissolved, and the organic matter left in 
the original shape of the bone, but soft and pliable. 
If, instead, the bone be burned in the fire, the 
organic matter will be removed and the mineral 
left white and porous. The blood circulates freely 
through the bones, however hard they may seem to 
be. If a little madder be mixed with the food of 
pigs, it will tinge red all their bones. If the madder 
be given at considerable intervals, it will make 
streaks of white and red bone alternately. 

Putrefaction. — Owing to the complex structure of 
albuminous substances, and the presence of the fickle 



ALBUMINOUS BODIES. 



211 



nitrogen, they readily oxydize and form entirely 
new compounds. This breaking up is called putre- 
faction. The P and S present in flesh especially, 
take up the H in hot haste, and flying off as sul- 
phuretted hydrogen (HS) and phosphuretted hydro- 
gen (PH 3 ), salute our olfactories with their well- 
known odors. These poisonous and offensive gases 
abounding near slaughter-houses and similar estab- 
lishments, make them so unhealthy. Any portion 
of an albuminous substance thus putrefying may 
act as a ferment. This probably explains the 
danger physicians incur in dissecting a dead body. 
The least portion of the decomposing matter enter- 
ing their flesh, through a scratch even, is liable to 
be fatal. The presence of an albuminous substance 
always hastens decay. The white, or sap wood, 
contains some N, and so this rots very quickly. 
Timber steeped in a solution of corrosive sublimate 
(kyanized) is rendered almost indestructible, because 
that salt coagulates the albumen. The absence of 
HO retards chemical change, and therefore meats, 
apples, etc., are preserved by drying. Salt acts 
somewhat in the same way by absorbing the juice 
of the meat, and, while it covers it as brine, wards 
off the attacking O ; but as it dissolves some of the 
salts and other valuable elements of the meat, it 
makes it less nutritious. 



212 ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY. 



DOMESTIC CHEMISTKT. 

In the chemistry of housekeeping there are some 
points not yet spoken of, and they may now be prof- 
itably discussed. 

Making Bread. — Flour consists of gluten, starch, 
and a little gum and sugar. There is also about two 
per cent, of ash, about one half of which is phos- 
phate of lime; but these mineral constituents are 
found mainly in the bran. In mixing the " sponge," 
the process is purely mechanical. The water used 
moistens the starch, dissolves the albumen, sugar, 
and gum, and causes the gluten to cohere. When 
the sponge is set aside in a warm place to rise (as 
heat favors chemical change), the yeast, yeast-cake, 
or emptyings, as the case may be, induces a rapid 
fermentation, converting the sugar into alcohol and 
C0 2 . This gas is diffused through the mass, and 
struggles to escape, but is retained by the tenacious 
and viscid dough, causing it to "rise." The next 
step includes the addition of fresh flour, and a la- 
borious process of " kneading." The latter, so essen- 
tial to good bread, diffuses the half -fermented sponge 
uniformly through the dough, and thus spreads the 
continued fermentation throughout the loaf ; it also 
breaks up into smaller ones the bubbles of gas en- 
tangled in the gluten, and thereby makes the bread 



DOMESTIC CHEMISTRY. 213 

fine-grained. The dough is now "moulded" into 
loaves. When placed in the hot oven, the first effect 
is to increase the fermentation. Some of the starch 
is turned into sugar to supply material, the heat ex- 
pands the C0 2 , changes the alcohol to vapor and the 
water to steam. All these by their expansive force 
rapidly increase the size of the loaf. "When the 
whole loaf has been heated to about 350° F., the fer- 
mentation is checked, and if the temperature of the 
oven is right, the cells of the bread will have suffi- 
cient strength to retain their form after the gas and 
vapors have escaped. If the heat is not sufficient, 
or if there is too much water in the dough, the C0 2 
escapes, and the cells, not having hardened suffi- 
ciently, collapse, and the bread is "slack-baked." 
If the oven is too hot, a crust forms over the surface 
of the loaf, which prevents the escape of the C0 2 , 
so it accumulates at the centre, making the bread 
hollow. A part of the starch in the crust is con- 
verted by the heat into gum (dextrine), and if it be 
burnt, this is disorganized, the volatile gases driven 
off, and the carbon left. A shiny coat is given to the 
loaf ("rusk") by moistening the crust after the bread 
is baked, thus dissolving some of the gum, which 
quickly dries on returning it to the oven. 

3Tilk-emptyings is sometimes used in making bread. 
In this case, the mixture of flour and milk, kept at 
a temperature of 90°, develops yeast, which produces 
fermentation. If the heat is over 90°, the yeast 
plant is killed ; if lower, it is not formed. In the 



214 ELEMENTAKY CHEMISTRY. 

latter case, the milk is merely turned to lactic acid. 
Oftentimes, too, the side of the dish, near the fire, 
may be warm enough to produce yeast and to gen- 
erate C0 2 and alcohol, while on the opposite side 
lactic acid is being formed. A uniform temperature 
is necessary, and this can best be obtained by pla- 
cing the dish of emptyings in a kettle of warm water 
on the stove hearth, where the temperature can be 
kept very near the requisite 90°. 

Stale Bread. — New bread consists of nearly one 
half water. In stale bread this disappears. It has, 
however, only combined with the solid portions 
chemically, and may be brought to view by heating 
the loaf in a close tin vessel. 

Aerated Bread is not " raised" by fermentation, 
but by means of C0 2 , which is forced into it by great 
pressure. 

Sour Bread is caused by the first stage of the 
fermentation not being stopped soon enough, and 
the second stage commencing, in which acetic acid 
is formed. This may be neutralized by an alkali, as 
saleratus (K0.2C0 2 ), or soda (Na0.2C0 2 ). 

Pan-Cakes are raised by the addition of some fer- 
ment, as yeast, but the second, or acetous stage, is 
always reached. The " batter" now tastes sottr, ^nd is 
sweetened by saleratus or soda. The acetic acid 
combines with the KO (if saleratus is used), forming 
acetate of potassa, a neutral salt which remains, and 
the C0 2 bubbles up through the batter, making it 
"light." 



DOMESTIC CHEMISTRY. 215 

Raising Biscuit. — In raising biscuit or cake, soda 
and cream of tartar are most commonly used. The 
latter is a bitartrate of potassa, and the reaction is 
as follows : 



Na0.2C0 2 + K0.2T 




2C0 2 + NaO.T + KO.T 



Cream of tartar is now often adulterated with plaster, 
lime, chalk, or flour. By dissolving in water these 
can be detected, as they form an insoluble precipi- 
tate ; but in milk, as commonly used in cooking, 
they are not noticed. Common "baking-powders" 
contain simply cream of tartar and soda. Professor 
Hosford's powders are scientific. They contain 
phosphate of lime and soda. The reaction is the 
same as that just described, while phosphates of lime 
and soda are formed, both of which are materials for 
bone-making. Soda and HC1 are also used in bak- 
ing. By heat both constituents are resolved into 
HO, C0 2 , and NaCl. The HO and C0 2 raise the 
bread, while the common salt seasons it. There is a 
difficulty in procuring pure acid and in mixing the 
ingredients in their combining proportions. 

Bread Dietetics. — It is doubtful whether ordinary 
yeast-powders or cream of tartar and soda make as 
healthy food as the regular process of fermentation. 
There is frequently a portion of the powders left un- 



216 ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY. 

combined, and always a salt formed which may in- 
jure the gastric juice. Sometimes, indeed, we find 
biscuit and cake yellow, and even spotted with bits 
of saleratus : yet such food must be " eaten to save 
it." A most wretched mistake ! Better throw away 
pans of cake and biscuit than torment Nature with 
such nauseous, poisonous preparations. Sal-volatile 
or carbonate of ammonia is often used by bakers for 
raising cake. This should volatilize into two gases, 
NH 3 and C0 2 , on the application of heat, but in prac- 
tice a portion is left commonly hidden in the cake 
to work injury to the inoffensive stomach. 

Toasting Bread. — By toasting bread it becomes 
much more digestible, as the starch is converted 
largely into gum, which is soluble. The charcoal 
which may be formed when the heat has disorgan- 
ized the bread and driven off the water, also acts 
favorably on the stomach by absorbing in its pores 
noxious gases, as in " crust coffee." 

Cooking Potatoes. — A raw potato is indigestible, 
but by cooking, the starch granules absorb the water 
of the potatoe, burst, and make it "mealy." If the 
potatoe contains more HO than the starch can im- 
bibe, it is called " watery." 

Cooking Meat. — All fried food is unhealthy, since 
the fat is partly disorganized by the heat, and there- 
fore becomes rancid on the stomach. Broiling and 
boiling are the most preferable methods of cooking. 
In the former no butter should be used, and the juices 
should not be pressed out of the meat, but the heat 



DOMESTIC CHEMISTKY. 217 

should be intense enough to sear over the outside 
instantly, and prevent " dripping" on the coals. In 
the latter, the water should boil when the meat is 
put in, so as to coagulate the albumen upon the out- 
side, close the pores, and thus keep the juices of the 
meat within, otherwise it will become tough, and 
much also of its value will be lost. In making soup, 
on the contrary, as the object is to extract the juices 
of the meat, cold water should be used. It should 
be heated slowly, and boiled only for a few moments 
just before it is taken off from the fire. Long con- 
tinued boiling would coagulate that which should 
remain dissolved in the soup. In baking, the oven 
should be very hot at first, to prevent the meat from 
becoming dry and unsavory. When meat burns, 
the heat has become so intense as to disorganize the 
flesh, driving off the HO and volatile gases, and 
leaving the C. 

Water in Cooking. — The solvent power of soft 
water is greater than that of hard water. For this 
reason, in making soup, tea, etc., the former should 
be used ; in boiling meats and cooking vegetables, 
where the object is not to extract the flavor or juices, 
the latter is preferable. Sometimes in cooking very 
delicate vegetables, as onions, the hardness of the 
water must be increased by adding salt to prevent 
their sweetness from dissolving. Salt is not put into 
vegetables, when boiling them, so much to flavor them 
as to preserve their aroma, which, if lost, no subse- 
quent salting will restore. Peas and beans will not 

10 



218 ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY. 

cook soft in hard water, because the mineral matter 
hardens the casein they contain. A soup cannot be 
made of salt meat. 

Quantity of Food fequired. — To repair the con- 
stant waste of the body, we each require about 800 
lbs. of food, 1500 of water, and 800 of oxygen per 
annum. A ton and a half of material is thus needed 
each year to preserve intact our corporeal system. 
We take in each day about 10 lbs. of matter, yet 
may not gain an ounce in weight. This large 
amount passing through the mould of our body is 
all burned — i. e., combines with O. This must be a 
renewed proof of the statement made under the sub- 
ject of oxygen, that the vital principle does not pre- 
vent decay, but only regulates it, and that the moment 
we begin to live we begin to die. 

The Effect of Food. — There is an ancient saying, 
" Tell me what a man eats and I will tell you what 
he is." A man's m'nd sympathizes so intimately 
with his body, that through the body the soul itself 
may be gradually animalized by gross food. The 
coarse feeder and the fine feeder become as different 
in their feelings as they are in their food. Animal 
food inflames ; vegetable, calms. The passionate re- 
quire a vegetable diet, while the phlegmatic may 
stimulate with flesh. Compare, for example, the 
dreamy vegetarian H'ndoo with the fierce, meat- 
eating Indian. 

The Divisio s o? To d. — ill food is divided into 
two general classes — " . ed-n\akiiig" and "muscle- 



DOMESTIC CHEMISTRY. 



219 



making" or respiratory and nutritive. The former 
comprises all such articles as are burned in our cor- 
poreal stove, as wood is in a furnace, mainly to pro- 
duce heat. Example : Alcohol, starch, sugar, gum, 
fat, butter, etc. The latter includes such as are 
transformed into flesh and bone, and thus build up 
our bodies in some manner. Example : Lean meat, 
bread, milk, etc. Each of these contains a mixture 
of both to a certain extent, but is mainly either 
respiratory or nutritive. Example : Fat is deposit- 
ed in cells which are probably nutritive, and, on the 
other hand, bread contains starch, which is respira- 
tory. 

Nutritive Value of Food of Different Kinds. — 
The following table, from Liebig, illustrates this sub- 
ject : 



Nutritive. 



Cows' milk 

Beans 

Peas 

Fat mutton 

Fat pork. . . , 

Beef 

Veal 

Wheat flour 

Oat meal 

Rye flour 

Barley 

Potatoes (white), 
Potatoes (blue). 

Rice 

Buckwheat 



Respiratory. 

3. 

2.2 

2.3 

2.7 

3. 

1.7 
.1 

4.6 

5. 

5.7 

5.7 

8.6 
11.5 
12.3 
13. 



Sugar, alcohol, oil, etc., are heating and fattening. 
They make no muscle, no brain, no nervous tissue. 



220 ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY. 

The bran of wheat contains largely the mineral mat- 
ter we need for our bones and teeth and the nutri- 
tive food for our muscles. The whiteness of fine 
flour ("bolted" from its bran) is given to it by its 
starch. Our bones and muscles call loudly for the 
flour unbolted, as Nature designed it to meet our 
wants. Pork is only half as nutritious as beef, and 
is hence worth for work only half price. Besides, 
the hog is a filthy animal, a gross feeder, and sub- 
ject to so many cutaneous diseases, that he will 
even stop eating for the luxury of being scratched. 
Its flesh was doubtless never designed for Yankee 
any more than for Jew. The workman gains strength, 
not from the pork he eats, but the turnips, cabbage 
(in its composition so near to beefsteak), milk, eggs, 
and other plastic or nutritive food. 

Climate Prescribes the Kind of Food. — The Es- 
quimaux Indian, with a climate many degrees be- 
low zero, needs much fire in his stove ; so he lives 
mainly on fats. Tallow candles constitute his sweet- 
meats — twelve pounds making a luxurious dessert. 
Dr. Kane tells us that they would steal the half-burned 
wicks out of his candlesticks and draw them slowly 
between their teeth, to secure the adhering grease. 
Indeed, their idea of heaven is said to be that there 
the righteous will live in ice-huts, and feast forever on 
blubber. An American living in the Arctic regions 
soon acquires much of an Esquimaux's love for fats 
and oils. Nature has providentially provided there 
that kind of food, and not much else. Turn now to 



DOMESTIC CHEMISTRY. 221 

the tropics, where the temperature is so high that all 
one's attention is taken up in keeping cool, and we 
find an entire change in the diet of the inhabitants. 
The natives confine themselves almost entirely to 
vegetables, and with this watery fuel reduce the heat 
of their bodies to the lowest point. 

A Mixed Diet required. — Nature seems to pre- 
scribe a mixed diet, to supply both wants of the 
system, and has, to some extent, mixed them her- 
self in the various kinds of food. The Frenchman 
eats oil on his salad, the Yankee bakes beans with 
his pork, the Italian begs a bit of cheese for his 
maccaroni, the Irishman drinks buttermilk with his 
potatoes, the Hindoo pours rancid butter on his 
rice, while the Chinaman seasons his with pea 
cheese. No amount of starch or fat would support 
life. A man would starve on sugar or butter alone. 
The nitrogenous or nutritive element must be added. 
The season also regulates our diet. In the winter 
the highly respiratory buckwheat, with butter and 
syrup, is perfectly palatable, while in summer acid 
drinks, watery vegetables, and a simple unstimula- 
ting diet is equally enjoyed. 



222 ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY. 



CONCLUSION. 

Chemistry of the Sunbeam. — All those various 
plant products of which we have spoken in Organic 
Chemistry, when burned, either in the body as food 
or in the air as fuel, give off heat. This was garnered 
in the plant while growing, and came from that 
great source of heat — the sun. Thus all vegetation 
contains the latent heat of the sunbeam, ready to be 
set free upon its own oxydation. The coal even, de- 
rived as it is from ancient vegetation, hidden 
away in the earth, is thus a mine of reserved force. 
Those black diamonds we use as fuel become, in the 
eye of science, crystallized sunbeams, fagots of force, 
ready to impart to us at any moment the heat of 
some old carboniferous day. As we warm ourselves 
by our fires, or sit and read by our oil and gas lights, 
how strange the thought that their light and heat 
streamed down upon the earth ages ago, were ab- 
sorbed by those grotesque leaves of the old coal 
forests, and kept safely stored away by a Divine 
care, in order to provide for our comfort ! To carry 
the idea still further, we see that the present warmth 
of our bodies all comes from the same source — the 
sun. It mostly fell in the sunbeams of last summer 
upon our gardens and fields, was preserved in the 



CONCLUSION. 223 

potatoes, cabbage, corn, etc., we have eaten, as fuel, 
and to-day reappears as heat and motion. 

Changes of Matter. — Chemical changes are taking 
place wherever we look — on land or sea. The hard 
granite crumbles and moulders into dust. The stout 
oak takes in the air and solidifies it ; takes up the 
earth and vitalizes it ; changes all into its own struc- 
ture, and proudly stands monarch of the forest. 
But in time its leaves turn yellow and sere, its 
branches crumble, itself totters, falls, and disappears. 
Our own bodies seem to us comparatively stable, 
but, with the rock and the oak, they too pass away. 
All Nature is a torrent of ceaseless change. We are 
but parts of a grand system, and the elements we 
use are not our own. The water we drink and the 
food we eat to-day may have been used a thousand 
times before, and that by the vilest beggar or the 
dirtiest earth-worm. In Nature all is common, and 
no use is base. She keeps no selected elements 
done up in gilt papers for sensitive people. Those 
particles of matter we so fondly call our own, and 
decorate so carefully, a few months hence may have 
dragged boats on the canal, or waved in the meadow 
as grass or corn. From us they will pass on their 
ceaseless round to develop other forms of vegeta- 
tion and life, whereby the same atom may freeze on 
arctic snows, bleach on torrid plains, be beauty in 
the poet's brain, strength in the blacksmith's arm, 
or beef on the butcher's block. Hamlet must have 
been somewhat more of a chemist than a madman 



224 



ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY. 



when lie gravely assured the king that " man may 
fish with the worm that hath eat of a king, and eat 
of the fish that hath fed of the worm." Life and 
death are thus, throughout Nature, commensurate 
with and companions of each other. Oxygen is the 
destroyer. It tears down every living structure, and 
would bring all things to rest in ashes. The sun- 
beam is its antagonist. It rebuilds and reinvigor- 
ates. 

The Sun the Source of Power. — The sun warms, 
enlivens, and animates the earth. In the laboratory 
of the leaf it works the most wonderful chemical 
changes. We see its handiwork in the building of 
the forest, the carpeting of the meadow, and the 
tinting of the rose. On the ladder of the sunbeam 
water climbs to the sky, and falls again as rain. 
The very thunder of Niagara is but the sudden un- 
bending of the spring that was first coiled by the 
sun in the evaporation from the ocean. Up to the 
sun, then, we trace all the hidden manifestations of 
power. Yet the force that produces such intricate 
and wide-extended changes is but one twenty-three 
hundred millionth part of the tide that flows in 
every direction from this great central orb. But 
what is our sun itself save a twinkling star beside 
great suns like Sirius, and Eegulus, and Procyon, 
whose brilliancy in the far-off regions of space 
drowns our little sun as the dazzling light of day 
does the smouldering blaze of some wandering 
hunter? 



CONCLUSION. 225 

Thus have we traced some of the wonderful pro- 
cesses by which this world has been arranged to 
supply the varied wants of man. Wherever we have 
turned, we have found proofs of a Divine care plan- 
ning, conforming, and directing to one universal end, 
while from the commonest things and by the simplest 
means the grandest results have been attained. Thus 
does Nature attest the sublime truth of Revelation, 
that in all, and through all, and over all, the Lord 
God omnipotent reigneth. 

10* 



APPENDIX. 



PKOBLEMS. 

Mathematics oe Chemistry. — In solving the prob- 
lems given on the 17th page, some may prefer to use 
proportion. The following will suggest the method : 

The equivalent cf the given constituent : equivalent of the compound : : weight of th« 
constituent : weight of the compound. 



Problem 1. How many lbs. of HO are there in a 
cwt. of S0 3 .2HO? 

Solution — 

2HO = 18 = equivalent of the given constituent. 
S0 3 . 2HO = 58 = equivalent of the compound. 
x — weight of the constituent. 
100 lbs. = weight of the compound. 
18 : 58 : : x : 100 lbs. 

x — 3LgVlbs. 

Prob. 2. How much sodium is there in 20 gr. of 
sal-soda (NaO.C0 2 )? 



228 ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY. 

Solution — 

Na = 23 = equivalent of the given constituent. 
NaO = 31 = equivalent of the compound. 

x = weight of the constituent. 
20 gr. = weight of the compound. 
23 : 31 :: x : 20 gr. 

x = 14$f gr. 

Prob. 3. How much carbonate of lime can be 
formed from one drachm of C ? 

Solution — 

C = 6 = equivalent of the given constituent. 
CaO . C0 2 = 50 = " " " compound. 

1 dr. — weight of the given constituent. 
x = weight of the compound. 
6 : 50 : : 1 dr. : x. 
x = 8J drachms. 

Prob. 4. How much C0 2 would be required to 
neutralize 2 lbs. of potash ? 

Solution. — First we find how much KO.C0 2 two 
lbs. of KO will make, and then how much C0 2 will be 
contained in that amount of the salt. 

(1.) KO = 47 = equivalent of the constituent. 
KO . C0 2 = 69 = equivalent of the compound. 
2 lbs. = weight of the constituent. 
x = weight of the compound. 
47 : 69 :: 2 lbs. ; x = 2ff lbs r = weight of KO.C0 2 . 



> J 



APPENDIX. 229 

(2.) C0 2 = 22 = equivalent of the constituent. 
KO.C0 2 * = 69 = equivalent of the compound. 
x = weight of the constituent. 
2|4 = weight of the compound. 

22 : 69 :: x : 2fflbs. 

The remaining problems can be used throughout 
the term at the discretion of the teacher, whenever 
the appropriate subject is under consideration in 
the class. 

Prob. 5. What weight of O is contained in 60 gr. 
ofKO.C10 5 ? 

Prob. 6. How much KC1 will be formed in prepar- 
ing 80 gr. of O? 

Prob. 7. How much H can be made from 10 lbs. 
of Zn? 

Prob. 8. How much H can be made from 50 lbs. 
of water? 

Prob. 9. How much saltpetre will be required to 
make 18 lbs. of aquafortis ? 

Prob. 10. How much oil of vitriol will be required 
to decompose 6 lbs. of saltpetre ? 

Prob. 11. How much HO will be decomposed by 
one drachm of K, and how much KO will be formed ? 

Prob. 12. What weight of nitrous oxyd will be 
formed from the decomposition of 6 oz. of nitrate 
of ammonia? 

Prob. 13. How much sal-ammoniac would be re- 
quired to make 2 lbs. of NH 3 ? 

* Some late authorities give the equivalent of K as 39.2, which 
would slightly change this result. 



230 ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY. 

Prob. 14. How much C0 2 will be formed in the 
combustion of 30 gr. of CO ? 

Prob. 15. What weight of carbonate of soda would 
be required to evolve 12 lbs. of C0 2 ? 

Prob. 16. What weight of bicarbonate of soda 
(Na0.2C0 2 , "soda") would evolve 12 lbs. of C0 2 ? 

Prob. 17. What weight of C is there in a ton of 
C0 2 ? 

Prob. 18. How much O is consumed in burning a 
ton of C? 

Prob. 19. In burning a charge of 10 lbs. of gun- 
powder, find the weight of the several products 
formed. 

Prob. 20. What weight of common salt would be 
required to form 25 lbs. of muriatic acid (HC1) ? 

Prob. 21. HC1 of a specific gravity of 1.2 contains 
about 40 per cent, of the acid. This is very strong 
commercial acid. What weight of this acid could 
be formed by the HC1 acid gas produced in the re- 
action named in the preceding problem ? 

Prob. 22. What weight of hydriodic acid (HI) is 
formed from a drachm of iodine ? 

Prob. 23. What weight of Glauber salts can be 
formed from 100 lbs. of oil of vitriol ? 

Prob. 24. What weight of S is there in 10 gr. of 
sulphide of hydrogen? 

Prob. 25. How much O is required to change a lb. 
of S0 2 toS0 3 ? 

Prob. 26. How much phosphorus in 40 lbs. of 
phosphate of lime? 



APPENDIX. 231 

Prob. 27. How much P in 40 lbs. of the super- 
phosphate of lime? 

Prob. 28. How much phosphate of lime will an 
oz. of P make ? 

Prob. 29. How many lbs. of HO in 186 lbs. of 
S0 3 .3HO? 

Prob. 30. How much C0 2 is formed in the com- 
bustion of one ton of C ? 

Prob. 31. What weight of S is there in a ton of 
iron pyrites ? 

Prob. 32. What weight of copperas could be made 
from 500 lbs. of iron pyrites ? 

Prob. 33. What weight of H is there in a pound of 
heavy carburetted hydrogen ? 

Prob. 34. How much O would be required to oxyd- 
ize the metallic copper which could be reduced from 
its oxyd by passing over it, when white-hot, 20 gr. 
of H gas ? 

Prob. 35. How much O would be required to 
oxydize the metallic iron which could be reduced in 
the same manner by 10 gr. of H gas ? 

Prob. 36. What weight of N is there in 10 lbs. of 
NH3.HO? 

Prob. 37. How much KO . C10 5 would be required 
to evolve sufficient O to burn the H produced by the 
decomposition of 2 lbs. of HO ? 

Prob. 38. How much H must be burned to pro- 
duce a ton of water ? 

Prob. 39. How much S is there in a lb. of S0 2 ? 



232 elementary chemtstry, 

The Alkalies. 

Problem 40. As soda is used so extensively in the 
arts, it is of great importance to all consumers of 
soap, glass, etc., that it should be manufactured as 
cheaply as possible. Leblanc's process of making 
it from common salt is now universally adopted. 
The operation comprises two stages: (1) Changing 
common salt into sulphate of soda ; and (2), the 
changing of this sulphate of soda into carbonate of 
soda. 

The first operation is performed in large cast-iron 
pans, about 12 inches deep at the centre, and 9 feet 
diameter. A charge of 500 lbs. of salt is thrown 
into one of these pans with about an equal weight 
of S0 3 , and heated. The sulphate of soda is formed 
with an evolution of HC1 fumes. These fumes are 
conducted into the bottom of a vertical flue, filled 
with pieces of coke, wet with constantly dripping 
water. This HO absorbs the gas, and forms a very 
weak muriatic acid, in immense quantities. 

The second stage consists in grinding the Glauber 
salts (sulphate of soda) with an equal weight of 
chalk (CaO.C0 2 ), and half its weight of coal. This 
mixture is heated and stirred until well melted, when 
it is raked out to cool. This mass is called " black 
ashy The chemical change that has taken place is 
very simple; the charcoal deoxydized the salts, 
changing the sulphate of soda into the sulphuret of 
sodium. The sujphuret of sodium then reacted with 



APPENDIX. 233 

the carbonate of lime forming the sulphuret of cal- 
cium and the carbonate of soda, as follows : 

NaS + CaO.C0 2 = CaS + NaO.C0 2 . 

The carbonate of soda alone being soluble in HO, 
is dissolved out of the black ash, and then crystal- 
lized, producing the soda-ash of commerce. 

The muriatic acid, which is an incidental product 
of the first stage, is used in making chloride of lime, 
so extensiyely employed in bleaching. The sulphuret 
of sodium has always been a waste product ; but at 
the late exposition at Paris (1867), blocks of sulphur, 
of tons weight each, were exhibited, which had been 
extracted from it by a process not yet divulged. It 
is said that 200,000 tons of common salt are annually 
used in the alkali manufactories of England. 

Find how much "soda" is formed from 500 lbs. 
of salt. 

Prob. 41. Find the amount of Glauber salts pro- 
duced in the first step, with the charge just named. 

Prob. 42. Find the amount of HC1 produced. 

Prob. 43. Find how much sulphuret of sodium is 
formed in the second step. 

Prob. 44. Find how much sulphuret of calcium is 
made. 

Prob. 45. Find how much sulphur could be saved 
(if none were lost) from the CaS. 

Prob. 46. How many lbs. of HC1 would be required 
to neutralize sufficient carbonate of ammonia to 
form a 30 lb. cake of sal-ammoniac (NH± . CI) ? 



234 



ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY, 



Prob. 47. How much S is there in a ton of plaster 
(gypsum)? 

Prob. 48. How much aluminum is there in a ton 
of clay? 

Prob. 49. How much K is there in 10 lbs. of alum? 

Prob. 50. How much white-lead (PbO.C0 2 ) could 
be made from a lb. of litharge ? 

Prob. 51. How many lbs. of C would be required 
to reduce 40 tons of brown Hematite (2Fe 2 3 . 3HO) ? 

Prob. 52. In 60 lbs. of heavy spar (sulphate of 
baryta) how much S is there ? 

Prob. 53. How much alum can be made from 1 cwt. 
of potash? 

The Metalloids. 

(Page 18.) Oxygen. — In making this gas, a cop- 
per flask and rubber tubing should be used, as it is 
by far the cheapest apparatus. Great care should be 




a Copper retort. 

b A copper tube leading from it. 

c Tube of india-rubber to convey the gas to a gas-bag, 

gasometer, or pneumatic trough. 
d Gas-bag. 
e Spirit-lamp. 



APPENDIX. 235 

taken in pulverizing the KO, C10 5 , as a pressure of 
more than 10 lbs. is liable to produce an explosion. 
For the experiments with the watch-spring, phos- 
phorus, etc., common "specie jars" will be found 
very convenient, or, in necessity, any w T ide-mouthed 
bottles w T hich can be obtained of a druggist. — The 
author will be pleased to correspond with any teacher 
who may be desirous of information concerning the 
apparatus which is needed, and the simplest method 
of performing the various experiments. Priced lists 
of apparatus, chemicals, etc., can be obtained, on 
application, from Messrs. J. Nellegar & Co. (late 
Messrs. Dexter & Nellegar), Albany, N. Y. 

(Page 34.) Nitrous Oxyd. — A special apparatus 
is necessary both for preparing and inhaling this 
gas safely. This consists of a glass retort — as shown 
in the cut — a wash-bottle, and in addition a gas-bag 
of from 20 to 50 galls, capacity for storing the gas, 
and a smaller bag of from 3 to 5 galls., with a wide, 
wooden mouth-piece for inhalation. It is well to pass 
the gas through a large wash-bottle, as shown in the 
cut on page 41, half full of HO, thence by a rubber 
tube directly into the large gas-bag. Before making 
the gas, pour into the bag a couple of gallons of 
HO : by standing in the bag over this the gas will 
be purified in a few hours. When about to admin- 
ister the gas, let the subject grasp his nose firmly 
between his thumb and forefinger: then, inserting 
the wooden mouth-piece, be careful that he does not 
inhale any of the external air, but takes full, deep 



236 



ELEMENTAEY CHEMISTBY. 



breaths in and out of the gas-bag. Watch the eye 
of the subject, and notice the influence of the gas. 
Commonly, the best effect is not reached until he 
begins to surge backward and forward. 

(Page 43.) The zinc for making hydrogen should 
be granulated. This is easily effected by pouring 
the melted metal slowly from the ladle into a basin 
of HO. A common junk-bottle, fitted with a cork 
and a glass tube, will answer for the evolution of the 
gas, but a " hydrogen generator," as sold by appa- 
ratus dealers, is much more satisfactory. In experi- 




Hydrogen Generator. 



menting with H, great care must be used not to 
ignite the jet of gas until all the common air has 
passed out of the flask ; otherwise a severe explosion 
will ensue. It is a safe precaution to test the gas 
by passing it in bubbles up through HO, and igniting 
them at the surface ; the force of the combustion 
will indicate if there be any danger. It must not 
be kept for any great length of time in bags, as the 
air will gradually force itself in, and the gas will 



APPENDIX. 



237 




partly pass out by the law of diffusion, thus form- 
ing a mixture which it is dangerous to ignite. 
The adjoining illustration of a jet of burning H is 
a representation of what is called " The 
Philosopher's Lamp." In using the 
" mixed gases," the utmost care is requi- 
site. The gases may be passed into a 
gas-bag, made of a common bladder, 
furnished with a stop-cock. A clay to- 
bacco pipe may be attached to it by 
means of a bit of rubber tubing. A 
plate of good soapsuds makes the outfit 
complete. Blow the bubbles with the 
gases in the bag, either in the air, or on 
the tin plate, but be cautious not to 
ignite them until the stop-cock is turned, 
and the bag withdrawn from the dish. Pure H 
bubbles may be blown in the same manner : if out 
of doors, they will float off to a great distance. H 
may be better purified for inhaling, by passing it 
through a solution of potash, with some alcohol 
added to it. The action of platinum 
sponge is best shown by the instru- 
ment represented in the cut. It was 
formerly used by chemists as a con- 
venient way of obtaining a light in 
the laboratory. Friction matches have 
superseded such clumsy inventions. 
The experiments with the compound 

blowpipe, as Shown in the frontispiece, Dobereiner's Lamp. 



The Philoso- 
pher's Lamp. 




238 



ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY. 



can be given either by the use of gasometers, or, in 
their stead, rubber gas-bags may be substituted at a 

much lower price. The 
H gun — which is simply a 
tin tube, closed at one end, 
and provided with a cork 
at the other, having a 
priming-hole at the side — 
may be filled over the 
Philosopher's Lamp when 
not ignited. The gas is al- 
lowed to pass in until the 
gun is about a fifth full, as 
nearly as one can guess. 

Some teachers will pre- 
fer to use the more exact 
chemical term "molecule," 
when speaking of a com- 
pound, to the word " atom," as employed in the text. 
Molecule means the smallest quantity of a compound 
that can exist by itself. Thus the exact language 
of such would be — "An atom of H and one of O 
unite, and form a molecule of HO." This term can 
be substituted very easily by those who desire it. 
The author has not employed it, lest he might con- 
fuse some beginners by an unnecessary scientific 
term. 

(Page 47.) Water is analyzed by the action of 
the galvanic current in the manner shown in the fol- 
lowing cut. We analyze it when we put upon our coal 




Gasometer. 



APPENDIX. 



239 




fire cinders wet with HO. 
The HO adds to the inten- 
sity of the fire, and " makes 
it burn better," as we say. 

(Page 55.) The Diamond. 
— Although the diamond is 
simply pure carbon, yet 
it has never been made Analysis of water. 

by any chemical process. Minute diamonds, it is 
said, have been separated from carbon compounds 
by long-continued voltaic action, but they were in- 
visible except by a microscope. The value of the 
diamond varies with the market ; the general rule is 
as follows: a gem ready for setting, of one carat 
weight, is worth $40 to $60 ; beyond this size, its 
value increases according to the square of its weight. 
The Kohinoor (mountain of light) weighs 103 carats, 
and is valued at $10,000,000. 

(Page 64) Carbonic Acid. — The experiments 
with this gas may be still further varied by having 
at the bottom of the inclined plane shown in the 
cut on page 65, a light model of a water-wheel. 
The invisible gas flowing down-hill will turn it very 
freely, especially if too many candles are not burn- 
ing at the time. 

Ventilation is thought by many to be perfectly pro- 
vided for if there be a ventilator placed at the top 
of the room, presenting one small opening for the 
egress of the bad air. To show the fallacy of this, 
we need only perform the experiment represented in 



240 



ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY. 



the adjoining cut. The bottle is fitted with a tin 
cover, through which a tube is inserted. The jar 
represents a room sealed tightly on all sides against 





the incoming of the air, and with only one opening 
for ventilation. Place a lighted candle at the bot- 
tom, and it will soon be extinguished, no O seeming 
to come in to feed the flame. Place now in the tube 
a slide, composed of two slips of tin soldered at 
right angles to each other, thus dividing the tube 
into four longitudinal portions. The lighted candle 
will burn freely, and a bit of smoking paper held at 
the top of the tube will reveal a current passing 
downward through two of the openings, and a cur- 
rent passing outward through the opposite ones. 
This shows very clearly the effect of a division in the 
opening used for ventilation. Of course, no room 
can be made as nearly air-tight as the bottle, since 
some air will come in at the sides, around the win- 



APPENDIX. 



241 



dows, etc. ; still, this experiment illustrates tlie im- 
perfection of the ordinary ventilator. The necessity 
of some means of changing the air is shown by the 
fact, that two persons sleeping in a room 15 ft. square 
will vitiate the atmosphere in three hours, 
and so rebreathe it twice before morning, and 
then wonder why they wake up with a head- 
ache. 

(Page 73.) Cyanogen. — The pupil will here 
distinguish ferrocyanide of potassium from 
the ferricyanide. The latter is the red prus- 
siate of potash. When the yellow prussiate 
is added to a salt of the sesquioxyd of iron, 
prussian blue is formed. This is employed 
in water-colors and oil-paintings, and when 
dissolved in oxalic acid, constitutes blue ink. Difiusion 

(Page 83.) The Law of Diffusion may be finely 
illustrated by the experiment shown in the 
cut. The upper jar 
is to be filled with 
H, and the lower 
one with C0 2 . The 
result will be that 
described in the 
text. 

(Page 86.) Chlo- 
rine. — In the arts, 
and for many ex- 
periments, CI is 
made by simply 







a Pneumatic trough, d Bell glass receiver. 

b Retort. e Shelf in pneumatic trough. 

c Lamp-stand. / Spirit-lamp. 

11 



242 



ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY. 



heating, in a glass retort, black oxyd of manganese, 
with muriatic acid. The reaction is this : 

Mn0 2 + 2HC1 = MnCl + 2H0 + CI. 

Indeed, most of the experiments in CI may be per- 
formed by taking a deep glass jar, and placing at the 
bottom some chloride of lime. By pouring upon this 
a little dilute S0 3 , the CI will soon fill the jar and dis- 
place the air. Phosphorus will in- 
flame spontaneously in CI. The gas 
is very annoying, and the room must 
be thoroughly ventilated. 

In preparing CI, as mentioned in 

the text, take four parts of common 

salt and mix it thoroughly with three 

parts of black oxyd of manganese; 

Phosphorus m ci. put this mixture in the retort, and 

pour upon it dilute S0 3 . The gas will be evolved 

abundantly. The reaction is as follows : 

Mn0 2 + NaCl + 2S0 3 . HO = MnO . S0 3 + NaO . S0 3 . 

HO + C1. 

The gas should be collected over warm water, as it 
is largely absorbed by cold water. By passing the 
gas for some time through a bottle of HO, a solution 
will be formed which will perform all the experiments 
in bleaching very nicely. To illustrate this, pour 
some of the chlorine-water into a test-tube of HO 
blackened with a few drops of ink. 

(Page 88.) Bleaching Powder is considered to 
be a mixture of the chloride of calcium and the 




APPENDIX. 



243 



hypochlorite of lime— thus, CaCl + CaO.ClO. It is 
produced in great quantities in the process of making 

sal-soda. 

( Page 93. ) Bibobate of Soda (Na0.2B0 3 + 10HO) 
is used in soldering and in brazing, and also in 
"blow-pipe analysis." When borax is melted with 
oxyd of chromium, it gives an emerald green ; with 
oxyd of cobalt, a deep blue; with oxyd of copper, a 
pale green ; with oxyd of manganese, a violet. 

(Page 103.) Phosphide of Hydrogen is frequently 
made by nearly filling a retort with a strong solution 




n Retort filled with solution of potash, with pieces of phosphorus in it. 
b Rings of vapor, from the combustion of the phosphuretted hydrogen. 

of KO, and then adding a few drops of ether and 
some small bits of phosphorus. The object of the 
ether is to prevent the explosion of the first bubbles 
of gas, as they come off, in the retort. The beak of 
the retort should dip under HO before applying the 

heat. 

The following singular story is told of the prob- 
able discovery of phosphorus many years before 
that of Brandt, the reputed discoverer. A certain 
prince San Severo, at Naples, exposed some human 



244 



ELEMENTAEY CHEMISTRY. 




skulls to the action of several reagents, and then to 
the heat of a furnace. From the product he obtained 
a vapor which kindled at the approach of a light, 
and continued to burn aglow for months without ap- 
parently diminishing in weight. San Severo refused 
to divulge the process, as he wished his family vault 
to be the only one to possess a "perpetual lamp," 
the secret of which he considered himself to have 
discovered. 

(Page 110.) Sal-Soda is sometimes called " salts 
of tartar," and when purified is commonly sold under 
that name. It is used by barbers for cleaning the 
head, and is a prominent constituent in many hair- 
washes ; 20 or 30 gr. in a gill of warm HO makes an 
excellent solution for such a purpose. 

(Page 115.) Metals of the Alkaline Earths. — 
These are termed alkaline because they are caustic, 
and earths, because they are insoluble in HO. The 

annexed cut shows an im- 
proved form of lime-kiln, 
in which the process is 
continuous. At a, b, c, d, 
are the doors for fuel, 
ash-pit, etc. The lime- 
stone is fed at the top 
from time to time, while 
the lime is taken out at / 
as fast as formed. 

Concrete is a cement of 
msmmwmmm^ coarse gravel and water- 

Lime-Kiln, ° 



I| 




APPENDIX. 245 

lime. It is of great durability. Whitewash is a mere 
" milk of lime." " Hard finish" is a kind of plaster in 
which gypsum is used to make the wall smooth and 
hard. " Calcimining" is a process of whitening walls 
with a wash of plaster of paris, or whiting. 

(Page 119.) Phosphate of Lime. — When bones 
are burned, a tribasic phosphate of lime is formed — 
thus, 3CaO.P0 5 . When this is heated with S0 3 , 
the change is as follows : 3CaO . P0 5 + 2(S0 3 . HO) = 
CaO.P0 5 .2HO + 2(CaO.S0 3 ). This mixture is 
sometimes called the superphosphate of lime, al- 
though the term belongs properly only to the CaO . 
P0 5 . By filtering, the CaO.S0 3 is removed, and the 
superphosphate is sold as a fertilizer, or may be 
heated with charcoal to form P — thus : 

2(P0 5 .3HO) + 160 = 2P + 6H + 1600. 

(Page 129.) When iron is cast in large masses, the 
metal has time to crystallize, and this weakens it 
very much. When immense cannon are cast, like 
the Fort Pitt gun, a stream of water is allowed to 
run through it to hasten the cooling process. When 
the melted iron is cooled in an iron mould, this chills 
the surface instantly, and makes it extremely hard. 
The product is called " chilled iron" and is used for 
safes and other burglar-proof instruments. 

(Page 133.) Copper. — Both lead and copper are fre- 
quently found native, the former in Missouri and Nor- 
thern New York ; the latter near Lake Superior. In 
such cases, the extraction of the metal from the spar 
in which it is imbedded is very simple. The ore is 



246 ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY. 

ground to powder in a stamp-mill, and then, by re- 
peated washing, during which the metal sinks by its 
superior specific gravity, is separated from the spar, 
and is prepared for the furnace, where it is melted 
and cast into bars for the market. * The ore, contain- 
ing oxyd, or carbonate of copper, can readily be re- 
duced by heating with charcoal and lime, as in the 
process of iron-smelting. The sulphurets, however, 
are reduced with much greater difficulty. They con- 
tain much iron pyrites, which must be removed. 
They are first roasted, to convert a part of the sul- 
phurets of copper and iron into oxyds. They are 
then smelted, as we have described before, and the 
iron mostly passes off in the slag, while the copper 
is reconverted into a sulpliuret. This is next 
roasted, and lastly heated to so high a temperature, 
that the sulphur leaves the copper as S0 2 , while the 
melted metal is drawn off, ready for the market. 

(Page 138.) Cobalt is a reddish-white metal, found 
in combination with arsenic. It received the name 
cobalus from the miners, because its ore looked so 
bright that they thought they would obtain some- 
thing valuable, but by roasting, it crumbled to ashes. 
They therefore thought they were mocked by the 
Kobolds — the evil spirits of the mines. The oxyd 
of cobalt makes a beautiful blue glass, which, when 
ground fine, is called smalt. It is used for tinting paper, 
and by laundry women to give the finished look to 
cambrics, linen, etc. Its impure oxyd, called zoffer, 
imparts the blue color to common earthenware and 



APPENDIX. 247 

porcelain. The chloride (CoCl) is used as a sympa- 
thetic ink. Letters written with a dilute solution of 
it are invisible when moist with the HO absorbed 
from the air, but on being dried at the stove, again 
become blue. If the paper be laid aside the writing 
disappears, but may be revived in the same manner. 
A winter landscape may be drawn with india-ink, the 
leaves being added with this ink. On being brought 
to the fire it will bloom into the foliage of summer. 

Manganese is a hard, brittle metal, resembling 
cast-iron in its color and texture. It takes a beau- 
tiful polish. Its binoxyd, the black oxyd of man- 
ganese, has been spoken of as used in the manufac- 
ture of O, CI, etc. By fusing four parts of Mn0 2 and 
three and a half parts of chlorate of potash with 
five parts of KO dissolved in a little water, a dark 
green mass is obtained called " chameleon mineral." 
If a piece of this be dropped into HO, the solution 
will undergo a beautiful change from green, through 
various shades, to purple. This is owing to the 
gradual formation of permanganic acid. The change 
may be produced instantaneously by a drop of S0 3 . 

Nickel is a grayish metal. Like cobalt, it is a 
constituent of meteorites. It is mined in Pennsylva- 
nia, in large quantities, by the United States Govern- 
ment, for making nickel cents. Its principal use is 
in the alloy called German silver. The salts of nickel 
possess a beautiful green tint. The rare gem chryso- 
prase is colored with oxyd of nickel. 

Bismuth is a reddish-white metal. It is known 



248 ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY, 

chiefly as an oxyd, in which form it is much prized 
as a cosmetic by those whose fading charms necessi- 
tate the use of pearl-powder. This should not be 
indulged in by ladies intending to visit chemical la- 
boratories, or lectures, as a few bubbles of HS es- 
caping into the air will change the snow-white com- 
plexion into a most suggestive black. 

Antimony was discovered by Basil Valentine, a 
monk of Germany, in the fifteenth century. It is 
said, that to test its properties, he first fed it to 
some hogs kept at the convent, and found that they 
thrived upon it. He then tried it upon his fellow- 
monks, but perceiving that they died in consequence, 
he forthwith named the new metal, in honor of this 
fact, anti-moine (anti-monk), whence our term anti- 
mony is derived. 

Antimony is found as Sb0 3 . It is a brittle bluish- 
white metal, with a beautiful laminated crystalline 
structure. It is used simply as an alloy for type- 
metal, Britannia-ware, etc. Its test is HS, which 
throws down a brilliant orange-colored precipitate. 
Example : Melt a small fragment before the blow- 
pipe, and throw the melted globule upon an inclined 
plane. It will instantly dart off in minute spheres, 
each leaving behind a long trail of smoke. 

(Page 149.) Nitrate of Silver is much used in 
photography. An account of the processes pur- 
sued in this art may be interesting to some. The 
daguerreotype is named from M. Daguerre, the dis- 



APPENDIX. 249 

coverer, who received a pension of 6,000 francs per 
year from the French government. A plate of cop- 
per, plated on one side with silver, is exposed to the 
vapor of iodine until a compound of iodide of silver 
is formed upon the surface. This is extremely sen- 
sitive to the light, and for this reason the process is 
always conducted in a dark closet. The plate is then 
quickly carried, carefully covered, to the camera, 
and placed in the focus, where the rays of light 
from the person whose "picture is being taken" fall 
directly upon it. These rays decompose the iodide 
of silver, setting free the iodine. The amount 
of this change is directly proportional to the num- 
ber of rays that are reflected from different parts of 
the person to form the image in the camera. A 
white garment reflects all the light that falls upon 
it, so that part of the plate corresponding will be 
very much changed. A black garment reflects no 
light, so that part will not be changed at all. The 
different colors and shades reflect varying propor- 
tions of light, and so influence the plate correspond- 
ingly. When the plate is taken out of the camera, 
it is carefully covered again and carried quickly into 
the dark closet. No change can be detected by the 
eye ; but now expose it to the vapor of mercury, and 
wherever the silver has been freed from the iodine, 
the Hg combines with it, forming a whitish amal- 
gam. The picture thus evoked comes forth nearly 
perfect in its lights and shades, but the w T hole side 

11* 



250 ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY. 

of the plate is covered with the iodide of silver, 
which would blacken if we should carry it out into 
the light. This must, therefore, be removed, so we 
wash the plate with hyposulphite of soda (NaO.S0 2 ). 
This dissolves the iodide of silver, except where it 
has been fixed by the mercury, and our picture needs 
only washing and a little paint on the lips and 
cheeks to be finished. If, instead of iodine, we had 
used bromine, the bromide of silver thus formed 
would have been much more sensitive to the light, 
and the picture could have been taken much quicker. 
Photography (light-drawing) is founded essentially 
upon the same principles as daguerreotyping. The 
process varies so much w T ith different operators that 
only the general outlines can be given. The details 
depend upon the quickness, exactness, and skill of 
the artist so much, that the same materials in differ- 
ent galleries produce vastly different photographs. 
So much skill has been attained in this art, that instan- 
taneous views are now taken by Anthony & Co., of 
New York. In their gallery the camera tube is closed 
by a slide which is drawn to its place by a heavy 
weight. The camera is "focused," for instance, 
upon a regiment of soldiers moving up Broadway, 
and the tube opens just as they are raising their feet 
for a step : b fore they place them on the ground 
the slide falls and the picture is taken — they are 
photographed all standing on one foot, and with the 
other in the air. The process is as follows : The 
glass plate is (1) thoroughly cleansed ; (2) a small 



APPENDIX. '251 

quantity of iodized collodion * is poured upon it, 
which covers the glass with a thin transparent film, 
when (3) it is put in the " nitrate of silver bath," t 
where the salt of silver in the bath is absorbed by 
the collodion film and changed to iodide of silver. 
The plate is now ready for the picture. After the 
sitting the plate is (4) taken, carefully protected from 
the light, to the operator's room. Here the picture 
is (5) developed by a solution of protosulphate of 
iron, with a little acetic acid added. (6) It is 
washed thoroughly ; (7) it is fixed with a solution 
of hyposulphite of soda ; (8) it is washed and dried, 
and (9) coated with amber varnish to preserve the 
film from accidental injury. This completes the 
"negative" From this the pictures are (1) "printed" 
by placing the negative upon a sheet of prepared 
paper,J and exposing it to the sun's rays. The 
lights and shades are now reversed, and when 
the colors are sufficiently deepened the picture is 
(2) washed, (3) toned in the " toning-bath," which 
contains chloride of gold, and imparts the delicate 
color to the photograph, (4) washed, (5) fixed, by 

* Iodized collodion is composed of gun-cotton dissolved in 
alcohol and ether, iodized with iodide of ammonium and bromide 
of cadmium. 

f The nitrate of silver bath contains nitrate of silver, iodide of 
silver, and water. 

% The paper is " sensitized" by immersing it in a solution of 
chloride of sodium, and then in one of nitrate of silver, thus fill- 
ing the pores of the paper with the chloride of silver, which is 
extremely sensitive to light* 



252 ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY. 

placing the paper in hyposulphite of soda, (6) 
washed, (7) dried, and (8) mounted on card-board, 
which completes the picture. 

Organic Chemistry. 

All organic substances contain carbon, and there- 
fore they have been defined as the " carbon com- 
pounds," The phenomena of Allotropism and Isomer- 
ism are evidence that the grouping of a compound 
has much to do with its peculiar properties. The 
recent advances of the science have developed sev- 
eral features worthv the attention of the student. 

A Radical is the base of a system of compounds. 
Example : Na forms, by union with O, the oxyd of 
sodium. This combines with HO, forming the hydra- 
ted oxyd of sodium, and this again with various 
acids. In this way a regular series of compounds 
are produced, in which Na is the starting point — the 
root, as it were. Thus : 

Na Sodium. 

NaO Oxyd of sodium. 

NaO.HO Hydrated oxyd of sodium. 

NaO.HO.SO3 Sulphate of the hydrated oxyd of sodium. 

NaO.HO.NO5 Nitrate of the hydrated oxyd of sodium. 

A Compound Radical is a compound that re- 
sembles an element in all its chemical behavior, and 
can be oxydized and transferred from one compound 
to another, forming chlorides, salts, etc., in the same 
manner as a metal, like copper or iron. Example : 
In the destructive distillation of C 4 Ke0 2 (alcohol) 



APPENDIX. 



253 



and S0 3 , the acid takes out an atom of HO, leaving 
C 4 H 5 — common sulphuric ether. Now, by taking 
an atom of O from this, there remains a colorless 
gas, C4H5, which has received the name Ethyl and 
the symbol Ae. This plays the part of an element, 
and being composed of two elements, is called a 
compound radical. It is the root of a series of 
compounds, thus : 

Ae— Ethyl (the radical) C 4 H 5 . 

AeO— Oxyd of ethyl (ether) C 4 H 5 C 

AeO.HO— Hydrated oxyd of ethyl (alcohol) C 4 H 5 O.HO. 

AeCl— Hydrochloric ether C 4 H 5 C1. 

AeCy— Cyanide of ethyl C 4 H 5 Cy. 

AeN0 6 — Nitrate of the oxyd of ethyl (nitric ether) .... C 4 H 5 0.N0 5 . 

By this we see that ether is the oxyd of ethyl, and 
may be represented by the symbol AeO, while alco- 
hol is the hydrated oxyd of ethyl, and may be repre- 
sented by the corresponding symbol AeO . HO. 

Homologous bodies are those which differ from 
each other by the constant addition of C 2 H 2> or its 
multiple. By the decomposition of common alcohol, 
we procure a series of alcohols, ethers, and acids, 
which differ from each other by constantly adding 
C 2 H to the preceding member of the group. 



Alcohols. 


Acids. 


Ethers. 


Methylic. . 


. . C 2 H 4 2 


Formic C 2 H 2 4 


Methylic... C 2 H 3 


Common . . 


. .C 4 H 6 O a 


Acetic C 4 H 4 4 


Common ...C 4 H 6 


Propylic . . 


• C 6 H 8 2 


Propionic ...C 6 H 6 4 


C 6 H 7 


Butylic... 


..C 8 H 10 O 2 


Butylic C 8 H 8 4 


Butylic ....0 8 H 9 O 


Amylic... 


. .C 10 H 12 O a 


Voleric C 10 H 10 O 4 


Amylic C^H^O 




C 12 H 14 2 


Caproic C 12 H 12 4 


C 12 H 18 




C 14 H lc O a 


J2enanthylic.C 14 Hi 4 4 


C 14 H 15 


Caprylic . . 


..C la H l8 O a 


Caprylic .,..C la H 14 4 


Caprylic... C, 6 H u O 



254 ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY. 

Many of these various substances are of no prac- 
tical value as yet, and some, as seen above, are 
merely hypothetical, but will probably be separated 
as the others have been, while all will doubtless be- 
come of use in the arts. In the art of dyeing they 
have been utilized, and have revolutionized the entire 
system. There are other compound radicals - as 
C 2 H 3 , called methyl, symbol Me — whoss oxyds form 
ethers, and hydrated oxyds alcohols, as in the case 
of Ae. 

Kakodyl is a combination of Me with arsenic — 
thus, Ae 2 As — and is a fearfully poisonous liquid. It 
takes fire spontaneously in the air, producing " "°, 
C0 2 , and As0 3 . It has been used for filling bombs, 
as a most destructive agent of war. The homolo- 
gous series has been continued up to melissic acid 
(CeoHeoO*), and melissic alcohol (CgoH^C^). The ex- 
tremes differ much in their characteristics. Formic 
acid, which is found in red ants (formica rufa), is 
a fiery pungent acid that blisters the skin, while 
melissic acid is a solid fat. The compound radical, 
like any metal or acid, unites directly with CI, I, H, 
Zn, S, and forms crystallized salts. 

Substitution and Eeplacement. — This curious law 
is stated thus — that " one or more elements of a 
compound may be replaced by any other element or 
group of elements which are equivalent in their 
chemical relations, and the chemical constitution re- 
main unchanged." (Silliman.) For example : 1st. 
Ammonia (NH 3 ) may be written thus: > T g. Now we 



APPENDIX. 255 

can substitute for an atom of H a compound radical, 

C H 

as Ae (ethyl), and we have n h 4 \ an ethyl-ammo- 
nia ; or, displace two atoms of H, and we have 
no 4 f], a bi-ethyl ammonia; or, substituting three 

C TT 

atoms of ethyl, we have n cX, a tri-ethyl ammo- 

C 4 H 5 

nia. These three ammonias are called methylamine, 
bimethylamine, and trimethylamine. They closely re- 
semble ammonia, neutralize acids, precipitate the 
bases from salts, form white clouds with HC1, as in 
the test of ammonia, and form crystallizable salts ; 
though they steadily rise in boiling point, ethylamine 
bo- .g at 54.4°, and trimethylamine at 195.8°. Other 
radicals yield other ammonias, similar to ammonia 
in odor and other properties. 



°<, 



2d. Acetic acid (C 4 H 4 4 ) may be written cjg 

in 

and the four atoms of its H may be replaced in suc- 
cession by three atoms of HC1 (hydrochloric acid), 



and form c< 



TTOl I 

hci o 4 , without at all changing the acid 



HCl. 

character, and modifying but slightly its proper- 
ties. This new acid is called chlor-acetic, symbol 
C 4 (HC1) 3 4 . 

3d. The hydrogen of Ammonia may not only thus 
be replaced by a compound radical, as ethyle, amyle, 
etc., but even by two or more radicals, or by chlo- 
rine, bromine, iodine, zinc, etc. Thus, tartaric acid 

ITT I 

(C 8 H 6 12 ) may be written o, h o 12 . Now, if we re- 



- 



256 ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY. 



place two of the atoms of H with two atoms of Zn, 
zno 12 , or C 8 H 4 Zn 2 0i 2 ; or, they can be 



H 



replaced by one atom of Zn and one of K — thus, 
c 8 iK n o 12 , and the symbol will be C 8 ZnKH 4 0i 2 . TL^se 

|H 4 

various changes indicate what a vast field lies open 
for discovery in organic chemistry, and the multi- 
plicity of possible compounds. The difficulty of pro- 
perly classifying them is at present insurmountable. 

Aldehyde. — Alcohol (C 4 H 6 2 ) is changed into 
acetic acid (C±H 4 4 ) by taking up two atoms of O 
from the air to combine with two elements of its H, 
thus forming two molecules of HO. In this there is 
an intermediate step, during which the two atoms 
of H seem to have left the alcohol in their anxiety 
to combine with O, while the alcohol has not yet 
taken its O to form the acetic acid. This interme- 
diate substance (C 4 H 4 2 ) is called aldehyde. It 
may be smelt by holding a red-hot coil of platinum 
wire in a goblet containing a few drops of alcohol. 

This experiment, showing the formation of alde- 
hyde from alcohol, may be very profitably followed 
by another, illustrating the change of alcohol into 
acetic acid. Place a little platinum black in a watch 
crystal, near a small cup of alcohol. Cover them 
both with a glass receiver, and set them in the sun- 
light. Soon a mist will gather, and tiny streams of 
the condensed vapor of acetic acid will collect and 
run down the sides of the glass. Fresh air must be 
occasionally admitted to oxydize the aldohol. 



APPENDIX. 257 

(Page 199.) The term Morphia is used by those 
who think the substance an alkali ; Morphine, by 
those who deem it a neutral body. 

Opium-eating has become so prevalent in this 
country that a few remarks upon it may not be un- 
profitable. The effect is principally upon the ner- 
vous system. A delicious reverie steals over the 
senses. Every avenue of sensation is thrilled with 
ecstatic enjoyment. The delirious dream becomes 
a vivid reality. Riches pour in abundantly, and the 
happy possesser revels in costly mansions with ele- 
gant appointments ; he wanders in gardens of tropi- 
cal luxuriance and gorgeousness, where birds of the 
rarest plumage sport in the branches, music trembles 
in the air, and perfumes steal the senses. History, 
poetry, science, art — all the treasures of knowledge 
are his, and the soul expands to utter the most 
brilliant thoughts. The grandest schemes present 
themselves and prompt to the pursuit of most im- 
possible results. Every sense is satisfied, and the 
whole man is at perfect peace. But, with the effect 
of the drug, the dream passes off, and then there 
comes a peculiar longing, an insatiable craving, 
which demands a repetition of the fascinating 
stimulus. In the course of time the amount neces- 
sary to produce the desired effect becomes increased, 
until at last, in some cases, an ounce of laudanum, 
or ninety grains of the acetate of morphia, have 
been consumed daily. At the first it seems only a 
.^ratification of a harmless desire, but insensibly, as 



258 ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY. 

the habit becomes fixed, it develops an ungovern- 
able passion. Step by step the unsuspecting victim 
is led on, until at last some vain effort at release re- 
veals to him the chains by which he is fast bound to 
a fascinating but fearful practice. Too often he 
finds it already too late. The subtle alkaloid has 
worked its way into the tissues and coatings of 
his entire internal organism. At first, while com- 
bining with the nerves, it set free a vast amount of 
vitality and force, but now it has satisfied itself. 
Already the whole system is impregnated with it, 
and no additional dose produces a thrill even of the 
delicious rapture for which the drug was once so 
eagerly sought. If he continues its use, a certain, 

FEARFUL, AGONIZING DEATH AWAITS HIM. If, resolutely, 

he summons his already enfeebled will, and com- 
mences the conflict, an agony of endurance, which 
defies all description, is before him. The whole 
body must be reorganized, and, atom by atom, the 
life-energy of the man drag out of the flesh and 
blood the corrosive poison. For weeks and months 
he endures the terrible torture, racked by intensest 
agony in every nerve and fibre, with visions of 
horror filling the mind. At last, the constitution 
conquers or the man dies. Yet this fearful struggle 
is better than apathy, for the victim of this habit 
moves on directly to one fate — the opium-eater's 
grave. 

This frightful but " o'er true" picture of the opium- 



APPENDIX. 259 

eater's fate should deter all who need it from thought- 
lessly using paregoric, laudanum, morphine, or 
opium, in any form, lest they, too, may come also to 
such a doom. In almost every case it is taken first 
as a sedative from pain or fatiguing labor, with no 
thought of becoming addicted to its use. But so 
insinuating is it that the victim forms the habit ere 
he is aware, and only knows he is a slave when for 
some reason he attempts to cease the customary dose 
and finds himself bound to a bitter servitude. 

Cibculation of Matteb.— The truth that matter 
passes from the animal back to the vegetable, and 
from the vegetable to the animal kingdom again, re- 
ceived a curious illustration not long since, as stated 
in the Hartford Press* For the purpose of erecting 
a suitable monument in memory of Eoger "Williams, 
the founder of Ehode Island, his private burying- 
ground was searched for the graves of himself and 
wife. It was found that everything had passed into 
oblivion. The shape of the coffins could only be 
traced by a black line of carbonaceous matter. The 
rusted hinges and nails, and a round wooden knot, 
alone remained in one grave ; while a single lock of 
braided hair was found in the other. Near the 
graves stood an apple-tree. This had sent down two 
main roots into the very presence of the coffined 

* The author has in his possession a letter, from a gentleman 
who was present at the opening of this grave, attesting the truth 
of this singular statement. 



260 ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY. 

dead. The larger root, pushing its way to the pre- 
cise spot occupied by the skull of Roger Williams, 
had made a turn as if passing around it, and followed 
the direction of the backbone to the hips. Here it 
divided into two branches, sending one along each 
leg to the head, when both turned upward to the 
toes. One of these roots formed a slight crook at 
the knee, which made the whole bear a striking re- 
semblance to the human form. There were the 
graves, but their occupants had disappeared; the 
bones even had vanished. There stood the thief — 
the guilty apple-tree — caught in the very act of rob- 
bery. The spoliation was complete. The organic 
matter — the flesh, the bones, of Roger "Williams — 
had passed into an apple-tree. The elements had 
been absorbed by the roots, transmuted into woody 
fibre, which could now be burned as fuel, or carved 
into ornaments ; had bloomed into fragrant blossoms, 
which had delighted the eye of passers-by, and scat- 
tered the sweetest perfume of spring ; more than 
that — had been converted into luscious fruit, which, 
from year to year, had been gathered and eaten. 
How pertinent, then, is the question, "Who ate 
Roger Williams?" 

Shakespeare expresses the same chemical thought 
when he says : 

" Imperious Caesar, dead and turned to clay, 
Might stop a hole to keep the wind away. 
Oh ! that the earth which kept the world in awe 
Should patch a wall to expel th£ winter's flaw!" 



APPENDIX. 



261 



Or, again, when he makes Ariel sing : 

" Full fathom five thy father lies : 
Of his bones are coral made ; 

Those are pearls that were his eyes ; 
Nothing of him that doth fade 
But doth suffer a sea change 
Into something rich and strange." 



INDEX. 






Acid Acetic 177 

Arsenious, 137 

Benzoic 195 

Boracic 92 

Carbolic 165 

Carbonic 64 

Chromic 140 

Citric 181 

Fulminic 73 

Gallic 182 

Hydrochloric 88 

Hydrocyanic 73 

Hydrofluoric 91 

Hydrosulphuric. . . 99 

Lactic 209 

Malic 181 

Margaric 183 

Muriatic. 88 

Nitric 37 

Nitrous 38 

Oleic 183 

Oxalic 179 

Phosphoric 102 

Prussic 73 

Pyroligneous 163 

Silicic 93 

Stearic 183 

Sulphuric 96 

Sulphurous 96 

Tannic 181 

Tartaric 180 

Acids 13 

Vegetable 179 

Air . : 82 

Albumen .1 206 

Alcohol 174 

44 Amylic 176 

Alkalies 14,15 

44 Metals of 104 

44 Manufacture of. 234 

Alkaloids 197 

Alloys 150 

Allotropism 156 

Alum 123 

Alumina 123 

Aluminum 121 

44 Bronze 152 

Amalgam 141 

Amber 195 

Ammonium 114 

Ammonia 39 

44 Carbonate .... 41 

44 Muriate 41 

44 Chloride 41 

Aniline 165 

Animal charcoal 

Antimony (App.) 248 

Aqua ammonia 37 

Arsenic 137 

Arsenuretted hydrogen. . 139 

Asphaltuni 166 

Atomic theory 11 

Atmosphere 82 

Balsams 193 

Barium, Chloride 

13 



Beer 

Beeswax 

Benzole (benzine) 

Bessemer's process 

Binary compounds. 

Bismuth 

Bitumen 

Bleaching-powder 

Blow-pipe 

44 Ox-hydrogen. 

Bones 

Bone-black 

Borax 

Boron 

Brass 

Bread 

Brick 

Bromine 

Burning-fluid 

Butter 

Caffeine 

Calcium 

Chloride...... 

44 Light 

Calico-printing. 

Calomel 

Camphene 

Camphor 

Candles 

Caoutchouc 

Caromel 

Carbon 

44 Bisulphide .... 

Carbonic oxyd 

Carburetted hydrogen. . 

Casein 

Catalysis 

Cells 

Cellulose 

Charcoal 

Cheese 

Chemical affinity 

Chemistry, Organic 

Chemistry of candle 

41 lamp...., 

44 fire 

44 Domestic. 

Chlorine 

Chloroform 

Choke-damp 

Chrome yellow 

Chromium 

Cider 

Clay 

Coal 

44 oil,... 

44 tar 

Cobalt (App.) 

Cochineal 

Coke 

Collodion 

Compound blow-pipe. . 

Combustion 

Confectionery 

Copper. 

™ Acetate... 



172 

189 

164 

129 

13 

247 

166 

88 

81 

80 

210 

60 

93 

92 

150 

212 

123 

90 

192 

209 

200 

115 

64 

81 

203 

142 

192 

192 

188 

195 

169 

54 

100 

71 

72 

208 

19 

159 

159 

57 

208 

9 

153 

76 

78 

75 

212 



176 
68 
140 
140 
177 
122 
61 
165 
164 
246 
204 



Copper, Sulphate — 
44 Carbonate .. 

Coppenis 

Corrosive sublimate. 

Cotton 

Cream 

Cream of tartar. 

Creosote 

Cupellation 

Cyanogen 



Davy's Safety Lamp., 

Disinfectant 

Dextrine , 

Diamond 

Diastase 

Diifusion, Law of. 

Drummond Light. 
Dyeing 



Elements 

44 Symbols 

Equivalents. , 

Eremacausis 

Essences , 

Etching , 

Ethers 



Fats 

Fermentation 

Fibrin ,. 

Fire-damp 

Fish, Breathing of 

Flame 

Fluorine 

Food, Varieties of, etc 

Fusel oil 

Fulminates 

Fusible Metal 



Galena 

Gas, Carbon 

44 Illuminating 

44 Diffusion of 

44 Olefiant 

Gelatin 

German silver 

Glass 

Glazing of pottery-ware. 

Gluten 

Glue 

Glycerin 

Gold.. 

Graphite 

Gum 

44 Arabic 

44 Benzine 

44 Lac 

Gun-cotton 

Gunpowder 

62; Gutta-percha 

163 Gypsum 

80J Haloids 

73 
168 
133 
134 



Hartshorn 

Heat 

Hematite, 

Homologous Series (App 



134 
134 
130 
142 
162 
209 
173 
163 
147 
72 

78 
90 

158 
55 

172 
82 
81 

202 



11 
10 

163 

191 

90 

175 

183 

170 

207 

68 

51 

75 

90 

218 

-176 

73 

150 

134 

57 

72 

83 

72 

208 

150 

111 

122 

208 

209 

184 

145 

56 

158 

158 

195 

191 

162 

106 

197 

118 

86 

39 

24 

127 

)253 



264 



INDEX. 



Hydrates 


. 49 
. 116 

. 75 
42 


Naphtha 


. 166 
. 40 
. 106 
. 34 
. 30 

. 164 
. 190 
. 176 
. 174 
. 166 
. 189 
. 191 
. 190 
. 164 
. 96 
. 183 
. 183 
. 197 
. 152 
. 153 
. 197 

J 202 

155 
. 144 

. 18 
. 29 

. 160 
. 165 
. 162 
. 105 
. 62 
. 159 
. 73 
. 94 
. 199 
. 165 
. 103 
. 101 
250 
. 164 
. 84 
. 118 
. 116 
. 144 
. 56 
. 104 
. 105 
. 105 
. 106 
. 106 
. 73 
. 122 
. 179 
. 17 
. 56 
. 210 

. 141 

. 146 
. 199 

. 142 

. 208 
. 194 
. 194 

. 158 


Hydro-carbons 

Hydrogen 

" Sulphuretted. 
14 Heavy carbu- 

retted 

44 Light carbu- 

retted 

44 Tones 

India-rubber 

Indigo 

Ink 

" Printers' 

" Red 


Nitre 

Nitrous oxyd 


. 99 
| 72 

! » 

. 45 

. 195 
. 205 
. 182 
. 189 
. 205 
. 91 
. 144 
. 125 
. 130 
. 130 
. 156 
. 60 

. 60 
. 34 
. 134 
. 136 
. 136 
. 136 
. 137 
. 56 
. 136 
. 136 
. 181 
. 159 
. 115 
. 88 
. 117 
. 118 
. 119 
. 119 
. 80 
. 162 
. 205 
. 136 
. 147 
. 184 

. 119 
. 171 
. 71 
. 102 
ry 16 
. 141 
. 142 
. 104 
. 104 
. 121 
. 115 
. 125 
. 209 
. 143 
. 44 
. 167 
. 202 
. 199 
. 115 
. 63 
. 45 


Nitrogen 

Oil, Bitter almonds 

44 Castor : 

44 Fusel 

44 Juniper berries.... 

44 Kerosene 

44 Linseed 

44 Lemon 

44 Olive 

44 Turpentine 

44 of vitriol 


Iodine 


Oils 

Olein 

Opium 

Oreide 

Organic chemistry 

44 bases 

44 coloring prin- 
ciples 

Organogens 

Osmium 

Oxygen 

Ozone 

Paper 

Paraffine 

Parchment 

Pearlash ; . . 

Peat 

Pectine 

Percussion caps 

Petrifactions 

Peruvian bark 

Petroleum 

Phosphorescence 

Phosphorus 

Photography (App.) 

Pitch 

Plants in the room 

Plaster of Paris 

Plastering 

Platinum 

Plumbago 

Potassium 

Potash 

44 Carbonate 

44 Bicarbonate 

44 Nitrate 

44 Prussiate of 

Pottery 

Preserves 

Problems 

Plumbago 

Putrefaction 

Quicksilver 

Quartation 

Quinine 

Red precipitate 

Rennet 

Resin 


Iridium 


Iron 


44 Sulphuret 

44 Sulphate 

Isomerism 


Ivory-black 


Lampblack 

Laughing-gas 


Lead 


44 Acetate of 

44 Carbonate 


44 Sugar of 

44 Tree 


44 Black 


44 Bed 


44 White 

Leather 


Lignine 


Lime 


11 Chloride 

44 Carbonate 

44 Sulphate 

44 Phosphate 

44 Superphosphate . . 

44 Light 

Linen 


Litmus 


Litharge 


Lunar caustic 

Lye 


Madder 


Magnesium 

Malt 


Marsh-gas 


Matches 


Mathematics of chemist 

Mercury 

44 Chloride of ... . 
Metals 


41 Alkalies 

44 Earths 

44 Alkaline earths . 

44 Heavy 

Milk 


Mirror 


Mixed gases 


Molasses 


Mordant 


Morphia 


Rosin 

Sago 

,SaleratU8 


Mortar 


Muck 


Musical tones 


. 106 



Sal-ammoniac 41 

Salt, Common 108 

44 Glauber 110 

44 Epsom 121 

44 Rochelle 180 

44 of tartar (sal-soda). 110 

Sal-soda 110 

Salts 14 

Salted meat 218 

Saltpetre 106 

Secretion 159 

Seidlitz powders 180 

Shellac 194 

Shot 151 

Silicon 93 

Silver 146 

44 Nitrate 147 

Smelting 127 

Soap 185 

Soda Ill 

44 Carbonate 233 

44 Sulphate 107 

Sodium 107 

44 Chloride of 108 

Soldering 93 

Soot 59 

Spontaneous combustion 79 

Spelter 131 

Stalactites 117 

Starch 157 

Stearin 183 

Steel 129 

Strychnine 199 

Sugar grape 169 

44 cane 167 

44 of lead 136 

Sulphur 95 

Sulphuretted hydrogen . 99 

Symbols 11 

Tannin 181 

Tar 164 

Tartar emetic 181 

44 Salts of (sal-soda) 110 

Tea 210 

Tin 132 

Turpentine 164 

Type-metal 150 

Tyrian purple 204 

Verdigris 134 

Ventilation (App.) 239 

Vinegar 177 

Vitriol, Green 130 

44 Blue 132 

44 White 132 

44 Oil of 96 

Water 47 

Water-lime 116 

Wax 189 

44 Sealing 194 

Whiting 118 

Wines 173 

Woody fibre 159 

44 Distillation of 163 

Wood-tar 163 

Yeast 171 



Zinc 



131 



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4 



The Natio7ial Series of Standard School-jBooks* 

SCHOOL-ROOM CARDS, 

To Accompany the National Readers. 



^ » » i » 



Eureka Alphabet Tablet *i 50 

Presents the alphabet upon the Word Method System, by which the 
child will learn the alphabet in nine days, and make no small progress in 
reading ana spelling in the same time. 

National School Tablets, 10 Nos *7 50 

Embrace reading and conversational exercises, object and moral les- 
sons, form, color, &c. A complete set of these large and elegantly illus- 
trated Cards will embellish the school-room more than any other article 
of furniture. 



READING. 

«» mm +» 

Fowle's Bible Reader $l oo 

The narrative portions of the Bible, chronologically and topically ar- 
ranged, judiciously combined with selections from the Psalms, Proverbs, 
and other portions which inculcate important moral lessons or the great 
truths of Christianity. The embarrassment and difficulty of reading the 
Bi le itself, by course, as a class exercise, are obviated, and its use made 
feasible, by this means. 

North Carolina First Reader . 50 

North Carolina Second Reader 75 

North Carolina Third Reader l 00 

Prepared expressly for the schools of this State, by C. H. Wiley, Super- 
intendent of Common Schools, and F. M. Hubbard, Professor of Litera- 

ature in the State University. 

Parker's Rhetorical Reader l oo 

Designed to familiarize Readers with the pauses and other marks in 
general use, and lead them to the practice of modulation and inflection of 
the voice. 

Introductory Lessons in Reading and Elo- 
cution 75 

Of similar character to the foregoing, for less advanced classes. 

High School Literature 1 50 

Admirable selections from a long list of the world's best writers, for ex- 
ercise in reading, oratory, and composition. Speeches, dialogues, and 
model letters represent the latter department. 



The National Seizes of Standard School-Hooks* 

ORT HOGRAP HY. 

SMITH'S SERIES 

Supplies a speller for every class in graded schools, and comprises the most com- 
* plete and excellent treatise on English Orthography and its companion 
branches extant. 

1. Smith's Little Speller $25 

First Round in the Ladder of Learning. 

2. Smith's Juvenile Definer 50 

Lessons composed of familiar words grouped with reference to similar 
signification or use, and correctly spelled, accented, and defined. 

3. Smith's Grammar-School Speller .... 60 

Familiar words, grouped with reference to the sameness of sound of syl- 
lables differently spelled. Also definitions, complete rules for spelling and 
formation of derivatives, and exercises in false orthography. 

4. Smith's Speller and Definer's Manual » 90 

A complete School Dictionary containing 14,000 words, with various 
other useful matter in the way of Rules and Exercises. 

5- Smith's Hand-Book of Etymology • • . l 00 

The first and only Etymology to recognize the Anglo-Saxon out mother 
tongue; containing also full lists of derivatives from the Latin, Greek, 
Gaelic, Swedish, Norman, &c, &c ; being, in fact, a complete etymology 
of the language for schools. 

Sherwood's Writing Speller . 18 

Sherwood's Speller and Definer ..... 18 
Sherwood's Speller and Pronouncer ... 18 

The Writing Speller consists of properly ruled and numbered blanks 
to receive the words dictated by the teacher, with space for remarks and 
corrections. The other volumes may be used for the dictation or ordinary 
class exercises. 

Price's English Speller *15 

A complete spelling-book for all grades, containing more matter than 
41 Webster, " manufactured in superior style, and sold at a lower price — 
consequently the cheapest speller extant. 

Northend's Dictation Exercises 75 

Embracing valuable information on a thousand topics, communicated 
in such a manner as at once to relieve the exercise of spelling of its usual 
tedium, and combine it with instruction of a general character calculated 
to profit and amuse. 

Wright's Analytical Orthography .... 30 

This standard work is popular, because it teaches the elementary sounds 
in a plain and philosophical manner, and presents orthography and or- 
thoepy in an easy, uniform system of analysis or parsing. 

Fowle's False Orthography 50 

Exercises for correction. 

Page's Normal Chart *3 75 

The elementary sounds of the language for the school-room walls. 

6 



The Natio?ial Series of Standard School-Books. 

ENGLI SH GRA MMAR, 
CLARK'S DIAGRAM S YSTEM, 

Clark's First Lessons in Grammar . . . 50 

Clark's English Grammar l oo 

Clark's Key to English Grammar . . . . *75 
Clark's Analysis of the English Language . 60 
Clark's Grammatical Chart *3 75 

The theory and practice of teaching grammar in American schools is 
meeting with a thorough revolution from the use of this system. While 
the old methods offer proficiency to the pupil only after much weary 
plodding and dull memorizing, this affords from the inception the ad- 
vantage of practical Object Teaching, addressing the eye by means of il- 
lustrative figures ; furnishes association to the memory, its most power- 
ful aid, and diverts the pupil by taxing his ingenuity. Teachers who are 
using Clark's Grammar uniformly testify that they and their pupils find 
it the most interesting study of the school course. 

Like all great and radical improvements, the system naturally met at 
first with much unreasonable opposition. It has not only outlived the 
greater part of this opposition, but finds many of its warmest admirers 
among those who could not at first tolerate so radical an innovation. All 
it wants is an impartial trial, to convince the most skeptical of its merit. 
No one who has fairly and intelligently tested it in the school-room has 
ever been known to go back to the old method. A great success is al- 
ready established, and it is easy to prophecy that the day is not far dis- 
tant when it will be the only system of teaching English Grammar. As 
the System is copyrighted, no other text-books can appropriate this ob- 
vious and great improvement. 

Welch's Analysis of the English Sentence • i 25 

Remarkable for its new and simple classification, its method of treat- 
ing connectives, its explanations of the idioms and constructive laws of 
the language, &c. 

POLITICAL SCIENCE. 

» q ♦ 

Young Citizen's Catechism 75 

Explaining the duties of District, Town, City, County, State, and 
United States Officers, with rules for parliamentary and commercial busi- 
ness—that which every future " sovereign 1 ' ought to know, and so few are 
taught. 

Mansfield's Political Manual l bo 

This is a complete view of the theory and practice of the General and 
State Governments of tho United States, designed as a text-book. The 
author is an esteemed and able professor of constitutional law. widely 
known for his sagacious utterances in matters of statecraft through the 
public press. Recent events teach with emphasis the vital necessity that 
the rising generation should comprehend the noble polity of the American 
government, that they may act intelligently when endowed with a voice 
in it 

7 



The A r atio?ial Series of Standard Sc7iool-l?oofcs, 



GEOGRAPHY. 



THE 

NATIONAL GEOGRAPHICAL SYSTEM. 



I. Monteith's First Lessons in Geography, $ 38 

II. Monteith's Introduction to the Manual, • 75 

III. Monteith's New Manual of Geography, • l 20 

IV. Monteith's Physical & Intermediate Geog. 2 oo 

V. McNally's System of Geography, • • • 2 25 

The only complete course of geographical instruction. Its circulation 
is almost universal — its merits patent. A few of the elements of its popu- 
larity are found in the following points of excellence. 



1. PKA0TI0AL OBJECT TEACHING-, The infant scholar is first introduced 
to a picture whence he may derive notions of the shape of the earth, the phenomena 
of day and night, the distribution of land and water, and the great natural divisions, 
which mere words would fail entirely to convey to the untutored mind. Other pic- 
tures follow on the same plan, and the child's mind is called upon to grasp no idea 
without the aid of a pictorial illustration. Carried on to the higher books, this system 
culminates in No. 4, where such matters as climates, ocean currents, the winds, pecu- 
liarities of the earth's crust, clouds and rain, are pictorially explained and rendered 
apparent to the most obtuse. The illustrations used for this purpose belong to the 
highest grade of art. 

2. CLEAR, BEAUTIFUL, AND CORRECT MAPS, In the lower numbers 
the maps avoid unnecessary detail, while respectively progressive, and affording the 
pupil new matter for acquisition each time he approaches in the constantly enlarging 
circle the point of coincidence with previous lessons in the more elementary books. 
In No. 4, the maps embrace many new and striking features. One of the most 
effective of these is the new plan for displaying on each map the relative sizes of 
countries not represented, thus obviating much confusion which has arisen from the 
necessity of presenting maps in the same atlas drawn on different scales. The maps 
of No. 5 have long been celebrated for their superior beauty and completeness. This 
is the only school-book in which the attempt to make a complete atlas also clear and 
distinct, has been successful. The map coloring throughout the series is also notice- 
able. Delicate and subdued tints take the place of the startling glare of inharmonious 
colors which too frequently in such treatises dazzle the eyes, distract the attention, 
and serve to overwhelm the names of towns and the natural features of the landscape. 

8 



The National Series of Standard School-'Books. 



GEOGRAPHY-Continued. 

3. THE VARIETY OF MAP EXEECISE, Starting each time from a different 
basis, the pupil in many instances approaches the same fact no less than six tiroes, 
thus indelibly impressing it upon his memory. At the same time this system is not 
allowed to become wearisome — the extent of exercise on each subject being graduated 
by its relative importance or difficulty of acquisition. 

4. THE CHARACTER AND ARRANGEMENT OF THE DESCRIPTIVE 
TEXT, The cream of the science has been carefully culled, unimportant matter re- 
jected, elaboration avoided, and a brief and concise manner of presentation cultivated. 
The orderly consideration of topics has contributed greatly to simplicity. Due atten 
tion is paid to the facts in history and astronomy which are inseparably connected 
with, and important to the proper understanding of geography — and such only are 
admitted on any terms. In a word, the National System teaches geography as a 
science, pure, simple, and exhaustive. 

5. ALWAYS UP- TO THE TIMES. The authors of these books, editorially 
speaking, never sleep. No change occurs in the boundaries of countries, or of coun- 
ties, no new discovery is made, or railroad built, that is not at once noted and re- 
corded, and the next edition of each volume carries to every school-room the new or- 
der of things. 

6. SUPERIOR GRADATION, This is the only series which furnishes an avail- 
able volume for every possible class in graded schools. It is not contemplated that a 
pupil must necessarily go through every volume in succession to attain proficiency. 
On the contrary, two will suffice, but three are advised ; and if the course will admit, 
the whole series should be pursued. At all events, the books are at hand for selection, 
and every teacher, of every grade, can find among them one exactly suited to his class. 
The best combination for those who wish to abridge the course consists of Nos. 1, 3, 
and 5, or where children are somewhat advanced in other studies when they com- 
mence geography, Nos. 2, 3, and 5. Where but two books are admissible, Nos. 2 and 
4, or Nos. 3 and 5, are recommended. 

7. FORM OF THE VOLUMES AND MECHANICAL EXECUTION. The 
maps and text are no longer unnaturally divorced in accordance with the time-hon- 
ored practice of making text-books on this subject as inconvenient and expensive as 
possible. On the contrary, all map questions are to be found on the page opposite the 
map itself, and each book is complete in one volume. The mechanical execution is 
unrivalled. Paper and printing are everything that could be desired, and the bind- 
ing is— A. S. Barnes and Company's. 



Ripley's Map Drawing • U 25 

This system adopts the circle as its basis, abandoning the processes by 
triangulation, the square, parallels, and meridians, &c, which have been 
proved not feasible or natural in the development 'of this science. Suc- 
cess seems to indicate that the circle " has it." 

National Outline Maps 

For the school-room walls. In preparation. 

9 



2*he 3Yatio?ial Series of Standard School-jBooks. 



MATHEMATICS. 



ARITHMETIC. 

1. Davies' Primary Arithmetic $25 

2. Davies' Intellectual Arithmetic 40 

3. Davies' Elements of Written Arithmetic 50 

4. Davies' Practical Arithmetic 1 00 

Key to Practical Arithmetic *1 00 

5. Davies' University Arithmetic 1 50 

Key to University Arithmetic . . • *1 50 

ALGEBRA. 

1. Davies' New Elementary Algebra 1 25 

Key to Elementary Algebra *1 25 

2. Davies' University Algebra . 1 75 

Key to University Algebra *1 75 

3. Davies' Bourdon's Algebra 2 50 

Key to Bourdon's Algebra *2 50 

GEOMETRY. 

1. Davies' Elementary Geometry and Trigonometry . . . 1 50 

2. Davies' Legendre's Geometry 2 50 

3. Davies' Analytical Geometry and Calculus 2 75 

4. Davies' Descriptive Geometry 3 50 

MENSURATION. 

1. Davies' Practical Mathematics and Mensuration . , . . 1 50 

2. Davies' Surveying and Navigation 2 75 

3. Davies' Shades, Shadows, and Perspective 4 00 

MATHEMATICAL SCIENCE. 

Davies' Grammar of Arithmetic * 50 

Davies' Outlines of Mathematical Science . . . '.. . .*1 00 

Davies' Logic and Utility of Mathematics *1 50 

Davies &. Peck's Dictionary of Mathematics *4 00 

10 



7%e National Series of Standard School-'Books. 

MATHEMATICS-Continued. 

ARITHMETICAL EXAMPLES. 

Reuck's Examples in Denominate Numbers % 50 
Reuck's Examples in Arithmetic l 00 

These volumes differ from the ordinary arithmetic in their peculiarly 
practical character. They are composed mainly of examples, and afford 
the most severe and thorough discipline for the mind. While a book 
■which should contain a complete treatise of theory and practice would be 
too cumbersome for every-day use, the insufficiency of practical examples 
has been a source of complaint. 

HIGHER MATHEMATICS. 

Church's Elements of Calculus 2 50 

Church's Analytical Geometry. .- . . . . 2 50 
Church's Descriptive Geometry, with Shades, 

Shadows, and Perspective . 5 00 

These volumes constitute the "West Point Course" in their several 
departments. 

Courtenay's Elements of Calculus .... 3 75 

A work especially popular at the South. 

Hackley's Trigonometry . 3 75 

With applications to navigation and surveying, nautical and practical 
geometry and geodesy, and logarithmic, trigonometrical, and nautical 
tables. 

THE METRIC SYSTEM. 

The International System of Uniform Weights and Measures must hereafter he 
taught in all common-schools. Professor Charles Davies is the official exponent of 
the system, as indicated by the following resolutions, adopted by the Committee of the 
House of Representatives, on a " Uniform System of Coinage, Weights, and Measures," 
February 2, 186T :— 

Resolved, That this committee has observed with gratification the efforts made by 
the editors and publishers of several mathematical works, designed for the use of com- 
mon-schools and other institutions of learning, to introduce the Metric System of 
Weights and Measures, as authorized by Congress, into the system of instruction of 
the youth of the United States, in its various departments ; and, in order to extend 
further the knowledge of its advantages, alike in public education and in general use 
by the people, 

Be it further resolved, That Professor Charles Davies, LL.D., of the State of New 
York, be requested to confer with superintendents of public instruction, and teachers 
of schools, and others interested in a reform of the present incongruous system, and, 
by lectures and addresses, to promote its general introduction and use. 

The official version of the Metric System, as prepared by Dr. Davies, may be found 
in the Written, Practical, and University Arithmetics ef the Mathematical Series, and 
in also published separately, price postpaid, five cents. 

12 



The JVatio7ial Series of Standard School-Books. 

HISTORY. 

« — o 

fflonteith's Youth's History, $75 

A History of the United States for beginners. It is arranged upon the 
catechetical plan, with illustrative maps and engravings, review questions, 
dates in parentheses (that their study may be optional with the younger 
class of learners), and interesting Biographical Sketches of all persons 
who have been prominently identified with the history of our countiy. 

Willard's United States, School edition, . . . 1 50 

Do. do. University edition, . 2 50 

The plan of this standard work is chronologically exhibited in front of 
the title-page; the Maps and Sketches are found useful assistants to the 
memory, and dates, usually so difficult to remember, are so systematically 
arranged as in a great degree to obviate the difficulty. Candor, impar- 
tiality, and accuracy, are the distinguishing features of the narrative 
portion. 

Willard's Universal History, - 2 50 

The most valuable features of the " United States 11 are reproduced in 
this. The peculiarities of the work are its great conciseness and the 
prominence given to the chronological order of events. The margin 
marks each successive era with great distinctness, bo that the pupil re- 
tains not oaly the event but its time, and thus fixes the order of history 
firmly and usefully in his mind. Mrs. Willard's books are constantly 
revised, and at all times written up to embrace important historical 
events of recent date. 

Berard's History of England, l 50 

By an authoress well known for the success of her History of the United 
States. The social life of the English people is felicitously interwove 1, 
as in fact, with the civil and military transactions of the realm. 

Ricord's History of Rome, l 50 

Possesses the charm of an attractive romance. The Fables with which 
this history abounds are introduced in such a way as not to deceive the 
inexperienced, while adding materially to the value of the work as a reli- 
able index to the character and institutions, as well as the history of the 
Roman people. 

Hanna's Bible History, l 50 

The only compendium of Bible narrative which affords a connected and 
chronological view of the important events there recorded, divested of all 
superfluous detail. 

Alison's History of Europe 2 50 

An abridgment for Schools, by Gould, of this great standard work, 
covering the eventful period from A. D. 1789 to 1815, being mainly a his- 
tory of the career of Napoleon. 

Marsh's Ecclesiastical History, 2 25 

Questions to ditto, 75 

Affording the History of the Church in all ages, with accounts of the 
pagan world during Biblical periods, and the character, rise, and progress 
of all Religions, a<< well as the virions sects o.f the worshipers of Christ. 
The work is entirely non-sectarian, though strictly catholic. 

13 



The National Series of Standard School-ffooki. 

PENMANSHIP. 

Beers' System of Progressive Penmanship. 

• Per dozen . $2 50 

This " round hand ,f system of penmanship in twelve numbers com- 
mends itself by its simplicity and thoroughness. The first four numbers 
are primary books. Nos. 5 to 7, advanced books for boys. Nos. 8 to 10 
advanced books for girls. Nos. 11 and 12, ornamental penmanship. 
These books are printed from steel plates (engraved by McLees), and are 
unexcelled in mechanical execution. Large quantities are aunually sold. 

Beers' Slated Copy Slips, per set *50 

All beginners should practice, for a few weeks, slate exercises, familiar- 
izing them with the form of the letters, the motions of the hand and arm, 
&c, &c. These copy slips, 32 in number, supply all the copies found (u 
complete series of writing-books, at a trifling cost. 

Fulton & Eastman's Copy Books, per dozen l 50 

A series for the economical, — complete in three numbers. (1) Elemen- 
tary Exercises : (2) Gentlemen's Hand : (3) Ladies' Hand. 

Fulton & Eastman's Chirographic Charts, 

2 Nos., per set .*5 00 

To embellish the school-room walls, and furnish class exercise in the 
elements of Penmanship. 

DRAWING. 

Clark's Elements of Drawing . *75 

Containing full instructions, with appropriate designs and copies for a 
complete course in this graceful art, from the first rudiments of outline to 
the finished sketches of landscape and scenery. 

Fowle's Linear and Perspective Drawing *50 

For the cultivation of the eye and hand, with copious illustrations and 
directions which will enable the unskilled teacher to learn the art himself 
while instructing his pupils. 

Beers' Drawing-Cards, per set *25 

Embracing a large variety of subjects for copies, put up in a handsome 
package. 

The Drawing-School, per set ..... . .*i 50 

A series of progressive drawing-books, presenting copy and black upon 
the same page. 

Ripley's Map Drawing 1 25 

One of the most efficient aids to the acquirement of a knowledge of 
geography is the practice of map drawing. It is useful for the same rea- 
son that th?. best exercise in orthography is the writing of difficult words. 
Sight comes to the aid of hearing, and a double impression is produced 
upon the memory. Knowledge becomes less mechanical and more intui- 
tive. The student who has sketched the outlines of a country, and dotted 
the important places, is little likely to forget either. The impression pro- 
duced may be compared to that of a traveler who has been over the 
ground — while more comprehensive and accurate in detail. 

U 






The National Series of Standard School-Sootcs* 

ELOCUTION. 



Northend's Little Orator ........ *60 

Contains simple and attractive pieces in prose and poetry, adapted to 
the capacity of children under twelve years of age. 

Northend's National Orator *i 25 

About one hundred and seventy choice pieces happily arranged. The 
design of the author in making the selection has been to cultivate versa- 
tility of eocpression. 

Northend's Entertaining Dialogues • • . .*i 25 

Extracts eminently adapted to cultivate the dramatic faculties, as well 
as entertain an audience. 

Zachos' Analytic Elocution • • l 50 

All departments of elocution — such as the analysis of the voice and the 
sentence, phonology, rhythm, expression, gesture, dec. — are here arranged 
for instruction in classes, illustrated by copious examples. 

Sherwood's Self Culture l 25 

Self culture in reading, speaking, and conversation — a very valuable 
treatise to those who would perfect themselves in these accomplishments. 



BOOK-KEEPING. 

# ^ » 

Smith & Martin's Book-keeping l oo 

Blanks to ditto • • *60 

This work is by a practical teacher and a practical book-keeper. It is 
of a thoroughly pop ular class, and will be welcomed by every one who 
loves to see theory and practice combined in an easy, concise, and 
methodical form. 

The Single Entry portion is well adapted to supply a want felt in nearly 
all other treatises, which seem to be prepared mainly for the use of 
wholesale merchants, leaving retailers, mechanics, farmers, &c, who 
transact the greater portion of the business of the country, without a 
guide. The work is also commended on this account for general use in 
Young Ladies' seminaries, where a thorough grounding in the simpler form 
of accounts will be invaluable to the future housekeepers of the nation. 

The treatise on Double Entry Book-keeping combines all the advan- 
tages of the most recent methods, with the utmost simplicity of applica- 
tion, thus affording the pupil all the advantages of actual experience in 
the counting-house, and giving a clear comprehension of the entire sub- 
ject through a judicious course of mercantile transactions. 

The shape of the book is such that the transactions can be presented as 
in actual practice ; and the simplified form of Blanks, three in number, 
adds greatly to the ease experienced in acquiring the science. 

15 



The National Series of Standard School-Books. 

NATURAL SCIENCE. 



FAMILIAR SCIENCE 
Norton & Porter's First Book of Science • $1 50 

By eminent Professors of Yale College. Contains the principles of 
Natural Philosophy, Astronomy, Chemistry, Physiology, nnd Gh ology. 
Arranged on the Catechetical plan for primary classes and beginners. 

Chambsrs' Treasury of Knowledge, • • • l 25 

Progressive lessons upon— -jira*, common things which lie most imme- 
diate! v around us, and first attract the attention of the young mind; 
seond, common objects from the Mineral, Animal, and Vegetable king- 
doms, manufactured articles, and miscellaneous substances ; third, a sys- 
tematic view of Nature under the various sciences. May be used as a 
Reader or Text-Book. 

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 
Norton's First Book in Natural Philosophy, l 00 

By Prof. Nohton, of Yale College. Designed for beginners ; profusely 
illustrated, and arranged on the Catechetical plan. 

Peck's Ganot's Course of Nat. Philosophy, l 88 

The standard text-book of France, Americanized and popularized by 
Prof. Peck, of Columbia College. The most magnificent system of illus- 
tration ever adopted in an American school-book is here found. For 
intermediate classes. 

Peck's Elements of Mechanics, 2 50 

A suitable introduction to Bartlett's higher treatises on Mechanical 
Philosophy, and adequate in itself for a complete academical course. 

Bartlett's Synthetic Mechanics, • . . . . 4 oo 

Bartlett's Analytical Mechanics, 6 oo 

Bartlett's Acoustics and Optics, - • , • ■ . 3 oo 

A system of Collegiate Philosophy, by Prof. Babtlett, of West Point 
Military Academy. 

GEOLOGY. 
Page's Elements of Geology, i 25 

A volume of Chambers' Educational Course. Practical, simple, and 
eminently calculated to make the study interesting. 

Emrnon's Manual of Geology, l 50 

The first Geologist of the country has here produced a work worthy of 
his reputation. The plan of presenting the subject is an obvious improve- 
ment on older methods. The department of Palaeontology receives espe- 
cial attention, 1 n 



The National Series of Standard School-jBooks* 

NATURAL SCIENCE-Continued. 

CHEMISTRY. 

Porter's First Book of Chemistry, ... 41 00 
Porter's Principles of Chemistry, . ■ • . 2 00 

The above are widely known as the productions of one of the most 
eminent scientific men of America. The extreme simplicity in the method 
of presenting the science, while exhaustively treated, has excited uni- 
versal commendation. Apparatus adequate to the performance of every 
experiment mentioned, may be had of the publishers for a trifling sum. 
The effort to popularize the science is a great success. It is now within 
the reach of the poorest and least capable at once. 

Darby's Text-Book of Chemistry, . . . . 1 75 

Purely a Chemistry, divesting the subject of matters comparatively 
foreign to it (such as heat, light, electricity, etc.), but usually allowed to 
engross too much attention in ordinary school-books. 

Gregory's Organic Chemistry, 3 oo 

Gregory's Inorganic Chemistry, 3 00 

The science exhaustively treated, For colleges and medical students. 

CHEMICAL APPARATUS. 

To accompany Porter's Chemistry. 

The extreme simplicity of the science, as presented in this book, puts 
the study, in point of expense, within the reach of all. A complete Ap- 
paratus (except a few arti "les which can be obtained of any druggist) is 
put up and for sale by the publishers. Price $12.00. 



BOTANY. 



50 



Thinker's First Lessons in Botany, .... 

For children. The technical terms are largely dispensed with in favor 
of an easy and familiar style adapted to the smallest learner. 

Wood's Object Lessons in Botany, • • . .. 1 53 

Wood's Intermediate Botany, 2 50 

Wood's New Class-Book of Botany, • • • 3 75 

The standard text-books of the United States in this department. In 
6ty'e they are simple, popular, and lively; in arrangement, easy and nat- 
ural; in description, graphic and strictly exact. The Tables for Analysis 
ar • reduced to a perfect system. More are annually sold than of all others 
combined. 

Darby's Southern Botany, 2 oo 

Embracing general Structural and Physiological Botany, with vegetable 
products, and descriptions of Southern plants, and a complete Flora of 
tbe Southern States. 



The National Series of Standard School-'BooFes. 
NATURAL SCIENCE-Continued 

PHYSIOLOGY. 
Jarvis' Primary Physiology! ... * . 4 so 
Jarvis' Physiology and Laws of Health, . l 75 

The only books extant which approach this subject with a proper view 
of the true object of teaching Physiology in schools, viz., that scholars 
may know how to take care of their own health. In bold contrast with 
the abstract Anatomies, which children learn as they would Greek or 
Latin (and forget as soon), to discipline the mind, are these text-books, 
using the science as a secondary consideration, and only so far as is 
necessary for the comprehension of the laws of health. 

Hamilton's Vegetable & Animal Physiology, l 25 

The two branches of the science combined in one volume lead the stu- 
dent to a proper comprehension of the Analogies of Nature. 

ASTRONOMY. 
Willard's School Astronomy, l oo 

By means of clear and attractive illustrations, addressing the eye in 
many cases by analogies, careful definitions of all necessary technical 
terms, a cai ef ul avoidance of verbiage and unimportant matter, particular 
attention to analysis, and a general adoption of the simplest methods, 
Mrs. Willard has made the best and most attractive elementary Astron- 
omy extant. 

Mclniyre's Astronomy and the Globes, . . l 50 

A complete treatise for intermediate classes. Highly approved. 

Bartlett's Spherical Astronomy, 4 so 

The West Point course, for advanced classes, with applications to the 
current wants of Navigation, Geography, and Chronology. 

NATURAL HISTORY. 
Carl's Child's Book of Natural History, . . o 50 

Illustrating the Animal, Vegetable, and Mineral Kingdoms, with appli- 
cation to the Arts. For beginners. Beautifully and copiously illustrated. 

ZOOLOGY. 
Chambers' Elements of Zoology, l so 

A complete and comprehensive system of Zoology, adapted for aca- 
demic instruction, presenting a systematic view of the Animal Kingdom 
as a portion of external Nature. 



It will be observed, that, in the various departments of Natural Science, the 
National Sekies is extremely rich. The mineral, animal, and vegetable kingdoms, 
matter, and the laws that govern it in all its forms, are here placed before the 
student by those who have made its study a specialty and a life work. The works 
of Professors Peck, of Columbia College, Norton and Poster, of Yale, Baei- 
lett, of West Point Military Academy, Emmens, of Williams, and State Geologist 
of New York and North Carolina, Wood, the botanist, and JaBvis, the eminent phy- 
cir.iAP. arP! gK tge med indubitabJ thority in all that concerns their several specialties 

18 



The National Series of Standard School- Books* 



MODERN LANGUAGE. 

*» * m » 

French and English Primer, $10 

German and English Primer, 10 

Spanish and English Primer, 10 

The names of common objects properly illustrated and arranged in easy 

lessons. 

Ledru's French Fables, • •"•. 80 

Ledru's French Grammar, 1 00 

Ledru's French Reader, 1 00 

The author's long experience has enabled him to present the most thor- 
oughly practical text-books extant, in this branch. The system of pro- 
nunciation (by phonetic illustration) is original with this author, and will 
commend itself to all American teachers, as it enables their pupils to se- 
cure an absolutely correct pronunciation without the assistance of a native 
master. This feature is peculiarly valuable also to " self-taught" students 
The directions for ascertaining the gender of French nouns — also a great 
stumbling-block— are peculiar to this work, and will be found remarkably 
competent to the end proposed. The criticism of teachers and the test of 
the school-room is invited to this excellent series, with confidence. 

Haskin's French and English First Book . 80 

Presents the striking feature of a simultaneous presentation of the ele- 
mentary principles of the vernacular with those of a foreign language. 
This is the method which the practical teacher naturally pursues in oral 
instruction, and possesses peculiar advantages in application to young 
pupils. 

Pujol's Complete French Class-Book, • • . 2 50 

Offers, in one volume, methodically arranged, a complete French course 
•—usually embraced in series of from five to twelve books, including the 
bulky and expensive Lexicon. Here are Grammar, Conversation, and 
choice Literature — selected from the best French authors. Each branch 
is thoroughly 1 adled ; and the student, haying diligently completed the 
course as prescribed, may consider himself, without further application, 
au fait in the most polite and elegant language of modern times. 

Maurice-Poitevin's Grammaire Francaise, • l 00 

American schools are at last supplied with an American edition of this 
famous text-book. Many of our best institutions have for years been pro- 
curing it from abroad rather than forego the advantages it offers. The 
policy of putting students who have acquired some proficiency from the 
ordinary text-books, into a Grammar written in the vernacular, can not 
be too highly commended. It affords an opportunity for finish and review 
at once ; while embodying abundant practice of its own rules. 

Worman's Elementary German Grammar, - l oo 

A work of great merit. Well calculated to ground the student in the 
elements of this language, become so important by the extensive settle- 
ment of Germans in this country. 

Willard's Historia de los Estados Unidos, . 2 oo 

The History of the United States, translated hy Professors Tolon and 
De Tounos, will be found a valuable, instructive, aud entertaining read- 
ing-book for Spanish classes. _. 

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